Summary and Key Terms

What Is Learning?

Instincts and reflexes are innate behaviours—they occur naturally and do not involve learning. In contrast, learning is a change in behaviour or knowledge that results from experience. There are three main types of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. Both classical and operant conditioning are forms of associative learning where associations are made between events that occur together. Observational learning is just as it sounds: learning by observing others.

Classical Conditioning

Pavlov’s pioneering work with dogs contributed greatly to what we know about learning. His experiments explored the type of associative learning we now call classical conditioning. In classical conditioning, organisms learn to associate events that repeatedly happen together, and researchers study how a reflexive response to a stimulus can be mapped to a different stimulus—by training an association between the two stimuli. Pavlov’s experiments show how stimulus-response bonds are formed. Watson, the founder of behaviourism, was greatly influenced by Pavlov’s work. He tested humans by conditioning fear in an infant known as Little Albert. His findings suggest that classical conditioning can explain how some fears develop.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is based on the work of B. F. Skinner. Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which the motivation for a behaviour happens after the behaviour is demonstrated. An animal or a human receives a consequence after performing a specific behaviour. The consequence is either a reinforcer or a punisher. All reinforcement (positive or negative) increases the likelihood of a behavioural response. All punishment (positive or negative) decreases the likelihood of a behavioural response. Several types of reinforcement schedules are used to reward behaviour depending on either a set or variable period of time.

Observational Learning (Modeling)

According to Bandura, learning can occur by watching others and then modeling what they do or say. This is known as observational learning. There are specific steps in the process of modeling that must be followed if learning is to be successful. These steps include attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. Through modeling, Bandura has shown that children learn many things both good and bad simply by watching their parents, siblings, and others.

Key Terms

acquisition

period of initial learning in classical conditioning in which a human or an animal begins to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus will begin to elicit the conditioned response

associative learning

form of learning that involves connecting certain stimuli or events that occur together in the environment (classical and operant conditioning)

classical conditioning

learning in which the stimulus or experience occurs before the behaviour and then gets paired or associated with the behaviour

cognitive map

mental picture of the layout of the environment

conditioned response (CR)

response caused by the conditioned stimulus

conditioned stimulus (CS)

stimulus that elicits a response due to its being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

continuous reinforcement

rewarding a behaviour every time it occurs

extinction

decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus

fixed interval reinforcement schedule

behaviour is rewarded after a set amount of time

fixed ratio reinforcement schedule

set number of responses must occur before a behaviour is rewarded

higher-order conditioning

(also, second-order conditioning) using a conditioned stimulus to condition a neutral stimulus

instinct

unlearned knowledge, involving complex patterns of behaviour; instincts are thought to be more prevalent in lower animals than in humans

latent learning

learning that occurs, but it may not be evident until there is a reason to demonstrate it

law of effect

behaviour that is followed by consequences satisfying to the organism will be repeated and behaviours that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be discouraged

learning

change in behaviour or knowledge that is the result of experience

model

person who performs a behaviour that serves as an example (in observational learning)

negative punishment

taking away a pleasant stimulus to decrease or stop a behaviour

negative reinforcement

taking away an undesirable stimulus to increase a behaviour

neutral stimulus (NS)

stimulus that does not initially elicit a response

observational learning

type of learning that occurs by watching others

operant conditioning

form of learning in which the stimulus/experience happens after the behaviour is demonstrated

partial reinforcement

rewarding behaviour only some of the time

positive punishment

adding an undesirable stimulus to stop or decrease a behaviour

positive reinforcement

adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behaviour

primary reinforcer

has innate reinforcing qualities (e.g., food, water, shelter, sex)

punishment

implementation of a consequence in order to decrease a behaviour

radical behaviourism

staunch form of behaviourism developed by B. F. Skinner that suggested that even complex higher mental functions like human language are nothing more than stimulus-outcome associations

reflex

unlearned, automatic response by an organism to a stimulus in the environment

reinforcement

implementation of a consequence in order to increase a behaviour

secondary reinforcer

has no inherent value unto itself and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with something else (e.g., money, gold stars, poker chips)

shaping

rewarding successive approximations toward a target behaviour

spontaneous recovery

return of a previously extinguished conditioned response

stimulus discrimination

ability to respond differently to similar stimuli

stimulus generalization

demonstrating the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus

unconditioned response (UCR)

natural (unlearned) behaviour to a given stimulus

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

stimulus that elicits a reflexive response

variable interval reinforcement schedule

behaviour is rewarded after unpredictable amounts of time have passed

variable ratio reinforcement schedule

number of responses differ before a behaviour is rewarded

vicarious punishment

process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model’s behaviour

vicarious reinforcement

process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model’s behaviour