Glossary
- Absolute threshold
-
refers to the minimum amount of stimulus energy that must be present for the stimulus to be detected 50% of the time
- acoustic encoding
-
We encode the sounds the words make
- acquisition
-
when an organism learns to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus
- actor-observer bias
-
attributing other people’s behaviour to internal factors (fundamental attribution error) while attributing our own behaviour to situational forces
- Adaptation
-
a trait of an organism has a function for the survival and reproduction of the individual, because it has been naturally selected
- Adolescence
-
the period of development that begins at puberty and ends at emerging adulthood
- afterimage
-
the continuation of a visual sensation after removal of the stimulus
- aggression
-
seeking to cause harm or pain to another person
- agonists
-
drug that mimics or strengthens the effects of a neurotransmitter
- agreeableness
-
the tendency to be pleasant, cooperative, trustworthy, and good-natured. People who score low on agreeableness tend to be described as rude and uncooperative
- algorithm
-
a problem-solving formula that provides you with step-by-step instructions used to achieve a desired outcome
- Alogia
-
refers to reduced speech output; in simple terms, patients do not say much
- Amnesia
-
the partial or total forgetting of some experience or event
- amplitude
-
the distance from the center line to the top point of the crest or the bottom point of the trough
- amygdala
-
structure in the limbic system involved in our experience of emotion and tying emotional meaning to our memories
- Analytical intelligence
-
closely aligned with academic problem solving and computations. Sternberg says that analytical intelligence is demonstrated by an ability to analyze, evaluate, judge, compare, and contrast.
- anchoring bias
-
when you focus on one piece of information when making a decision or solving a problem
- anhedonia
-
an inability to experience pleasure
- antagonists
-
drug that blocks or impedes the normal activity of a given neurotransmitter
- anterograde amnesia
-
you cannot remember new information, although you can remember information and events that happened prior to your injury
- antisocial personality disorder
-
the individual with antisocial personality disorder shows no regard at all for other people’s rights or feelings
- anxiety
-
involves apprehension, avoidance, and cautiousness regarding a potential threat, danger, or other negative event
- appraisal theory
-
you have thoughts (a cognitive appraisal) before you experience an emotion, and the emotion you experience depends on the thoughts you had
- archival research
-
method of research using past records or data sets to answer various research questions, or to search for interesting patterns or relationships
- artificial concept
-
a concept that is defined by a specific set of characteristics
- asociality
-
social withdrawal and lack of interest in engaging in social interactions with others
- Associative learning
-
occurs when an organism makes connections between stimuli or events that occur together in the environment
- attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
-
a constant pattern of inattention and/or hyperactive and impulsive behaviour that interferes with normal functioning
- Attitude
-
our evaluation of a person, an idea, or an object
- auditory cortex
-
strip of cortex in the temporal lobe that is responsible for processing auditory information
- authoritarian style
-
the parent places high value on conformity and obedience. The parents are often strict, tightly monitor their children, and express little warmth
- authoritative style
-
the parent gives reasonable demands and consistent limits, expresses warmth and affection, and listens to the child’s point of view. Parents set rules and explain the reasons behind them
- Autism spectrum disorder
-
Children with this disorder show signs of significant disturbances in three main areas: (a) deficits in social interaction, (b) deficits in communication, and (c) repetitive patterns of behaviour or interests. These disturbances appear early in life and cause serious impairments in functioning
- automatic emotion regulation (AER)
-
the non-deliberate control of emotions
- Automatic processing
-
usually done without any conscious awareness
- autonomic nervous system
-
controls our internal organs and glands
- availability heuristic
-
you make a decision based on an example, information, or recent experience that is that readily available to you, even though it may not be the best example to inform your decision
- avoidant attachment
-
the child is unresponsive to the parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if the parent leaves
- Avolition
-
characterized by a lack of motivation to engage in self-initiated and meaningful activity, including the most basic of tasks, such as bathing and grooming
- binocular cues
-
depth cues that they rely on the use of both eyes
- binocular disparity
-
the slightly different view of the world that each of our eyes receives
- biological perspective
-
The perspective (or school of thought) that looks at the influence of biology on behaviour
- Biological rhythms
-
internal rhythms of biological activity - ultradian, circadian, infradian
- bipolar disorder
-
experience of mood states that vacillate between depression and mania; the depressive episode is not required for a diagnosis
- blind spot
-
part of our visual field where the optic nerve leaves the eye, meaning we do not receive visual information for that area
- Borderline personality disorder
-
characterized chiefly by instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and mood, as well as marked impulsivity
- Bottom-up processing
-
Sense basic features of a stimulus in out environment and then integrate them
- Broca’s area
-
region in the left hemisphere that is essential for language production
- Bullying
-
repeated negative treatment of another person, often an adolescent, over time
- bystander effect
-
a phenomenon in which a witness or bystander does not volunteer to help a victim or person in distress. Instead, they just watch what is happening.
- Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
-
physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously, yet independently
- central route
-
logic driven path of persuasion using data and facts to convince people of an argument’s worthiness
- cerebellum
-
hindbrain structure that controls our balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills, and it is thought to be important in processing some types of memory
- cerebral cortex
-
the outer surface of the brain, is associated with higher level processes such as consciousness, thought, emotion, reasoning, language, and memory
- chunking
-
organize information into manageable bits or chunks
- circadian rhythm
-
a biological rhythm that takes place over a period of about 24 hours
- CNS
-
Central nervous system - the brain and spinal chord
- Cognitive development
-
involves learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity
- cognitive dissonance
-
psychological discomfort arising from holding two or more inconsistent attitudes, behaviours, or cognitions (thoughts, beliefs, or opinions)
- Cognitive psychology
-
the field of psychology dedicated to examining how people think
- Cognitive-behavioral therapy
-
a type of psychotherapy that focuses on cognitive processes and problem behaviors
- cognitive-mediational theory
-
asserts our emotions are determined by our appraisal of the stimulus
- collective unconscious
-
a universal version of the personal unconscious, holding mental patterns, or memory traces, which are common to all of us such as facing death, becoming independent, and striving for mastery
- combined approach
-
serves as a bridge between Western and indigenous psychology as a way of understanding both universal and cultural variations in personality
- comorbidity
-
the co-occurrence of two disorders
- Compliance
-
going along with a request or demand, even if you do not agree with the request
- Compulsions
-
repetitive and ritualistic acts that are typically carried out primarily as a means to minimize the distress that obsessions trigger or to reduce the likelihood of a feared event
- Conception
-
occurs when sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote
- cones
-
light-detecting cells. The cones are specialized types of photoreceptors that work best in bright light conditions. Cones are very sensitive to acute detail and provide tremendous spatial resolution. They also are directly involved in our ability to perceive color.
- confederate
-
a person who works with a researcher on an experiment, often acting as a participant in order to deceive real participants
- confirmation bias
-
tendency to focus on information that confirms your existing beliefs
- Conscientiousness
-
characterized by competence, self-discipline, thoughtfulness, and achievement-striving (goal-directed behaviour). People who score high on this factor are hardworking and dependable.
- Consciousness
-
awareness of internal and external stimuli; awareness of the self
- continuous reinforcement
-
When an organism receives a reinforcer each time it displays a behaviour
- cornea
-
the transparent covering over the eye
- corpus callosum
-
thick band of neural fibers connecting the brain’s two hemispheres
- Creative intelligence
-
inventing or imagining a solution to a problem or situation. Creativity in this realm can include finding a novel solution to an unexpected problem or producing a beautiful work of art or a well-developed short story.
- critical thinking
-
involves maintaining an attitude of skepticism, recognizing internal biases, making use of logical thinking, asking appropriate questions, and making observations
- Crystallized intelligence
-
characterized as acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it. When you learn, remember, and recall information, you are using crystallized intelligence.
- CT scan
-
imaging technique in which a computer coordinates and integrates multiple x-rays of a given area
- cultural-comparative approach
-
seeks to test Western ideas about personality in other cultures to determine whether they can be generalized and if they have cultural validity
- culture
-
the beliefs, customs, art, and traditions of a particular society.
- Cyberbullying
-
repeated behaviour that is intended to cause psychological or emotional harm to another person
- Deindividuation
-
refers to situations in which a person may feel a sense of anonymity and therefore a reduction in accountability and sense of self when among others
- Delusions
-
beliefs that are contrary to reality and are firmly held even in the face of contradictory evidence
- dendrites
-
branch-like extension of the soma that receives incoming signals from other neurons
- Depersonalization
-
defined as feelings of “unreality or detachment from, or unfamiliarity with, one’s whole self or from aspects of the self”
- Depersonalization/derealization disorder
-
characterized by recurring episodes of depersonalization, derealization, or both
- Derealization
-
conceptualized as a sense of “unreality or detachment from, or unfamiliarity with, the world, be it individuals, inanimate objects, or all surroundings”
- Discrimination
-
negative action toward an individual as a result of one’s membership in a particular group
- disorganized attachment
-
Behave oddly in the Strange Situation. They freeze, run around the room in an erratic manner, or try to run away when the caregiver returns
- Disorganized thinking
-
disjointed and incoherent thought processes—usually detected by what a person says. The person might ramble, exhibit loose associations (jump from topic to topic), or talk in a way that is so disorganized and incomprehensible that it seems as though the person is randomly combining words
- dispositionism
-
our behaviour is determined by internal factors, such as personality
- Dissociative disorders
-
characterized by an individual becoming split off, or dissociated, from her core sense of self. Memory and identity become disturbed; these disturbances have a psychological rather than physical cause
- dissociative identity disorder
-
People with dissociative identity disorder exhibit two or more separate personalities or identities, each well-defined and distinct from one another
- drive theory
-
deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs
- EEG
-
electroencephalography (EEG)
recording the electrical activity of the brain via electrodes on the scalp - ego
-
the rational part of our personality. It’s what Freud considered to be the self, and it is the part of our personality that is seen by others; operates on the "reality principle"
- elaborative rehearsal
-
a technique in which you think about the meaning of new information and its relation to knowledge already stored in your memory
- emerging adulthood
-
a relatively newly defined period of lifespan development spanning from 18 years old to the mid-20s, characterized as an in-between time where identity exploration is focused on work and love
- emotion
-
a subjective state of being that we often describe as our feelings
- Emotion-focused coping
-
consists of efforts to change or reduce the negative emotions associated with stress
- emotional intelligence
-
the ability to understand the emotions of yourself and others, show empathy, understand social relationships and cues, and regulate your own emotions and respond in culturally appropriate ways
- Empathy
-
the capacity to understand another person’s perspective, to feel what he or she feels.
- empirical
-
based on measurable data
- encoding
-
the input of information into the memory system
- encoding failure
-
memory loss that happens before the actual memory process begins
- endocrine system
-
series of glands that produce chemical substances known as hormones
- epigenetics
-
study of gene-environment interactions, such as how the same genotype leads to different phenotypes
- Episodic memory
-
information about events we have personally experienced
- event schema
-
a set of behaviours that can feel like a routine
- Evolutionary psychology
-
a discipline that studies how universal patterns of behavior and cognitive processes have evolved over time as a result of natural selection
- Explicit memories
-
those we consciously try to remember, recall, and report
- Extinction
-
the decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented with the conditioned stimulus
- extrinsic
-
arising from external factors
- extrinsic motivation
-
Doing something for a reward or reinforcer, such as a prize or money
- Extroversion
-
characterized by sociability, assertiveness, excitement-seeking, and emotional expression. People who score high on this factor are usually described as outgoing and warm.
- facial feedback hypothesis
-
proposes that your facial expression can actually affect your emotional experience
- Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD)
-
a collection of birth defects associated with heavy consumption of alcohol during pregnancy
- figure-ground relationship
-
we tend to segment our visual world into figure and ground
- Fine motor skills
-
focus on the muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable coordination of small actions
- flashbulb memory
-
an exceptionally clear recollection of an important event
- Fluid intelligence
-
encompasses the ability to see complex relationships and solve problems. Navigating your way home after being detoured onto an unfamiliar route because of road construction would draw upon your fluid intelligence
- Flynn effect
-
the observation that each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the last
- fMRI
-
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
MRI that shows changes in metabolic activity over time - foot-in-the-door technique
-
the persuader gets a person to agree to bestow a small favor or to buy a small item, only to later request a larger favor or purchase of a bigger item
- forebrain
-
largest part of the brain, containing the cerebral cortex, the thalamus, and the limbic system, among other structures
- Forgetting
-
loss of information from long-term memory
- fovea
-
The part of the retina where images are focused; contains cones
- frontal lobe
-
part of the cerebral cortex involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language; contains motor cortex
- frustration aggression theory
-
This theory states that when humans are prevented from achieving an important goal, they become frustrated and aggressive
- Functional fixedness
-
a type of mental set where you cannot perceive an object being used for something other than what it was designed for
- Functionalism
-
focused on how mental activities helped an organism fit into its environment
- fundamental attribution error
-
They tend to assume that the behaviour of another person is a trait of that person, and to underestimate the power of the situation on the behaviour of others
- gender dysphoria
-
When individuals do not feel comfortable identifying with the gender associated with their biological sex
- Gender identity
-
refers to one’s sense of being male or female
- genetic environmental correlation
-
view of gene-environment interaction that asserts our genes affect our environment, and our environment influences the expression of our genes
- glial cells
-
nervous system cell that provides physical and metabolic support to neurons, including neuronal insulation and communication, and nutrient and waste transport
- good life
-
achieved through identifying our unique skills and abilities and engaging these talents to enrich our lives
- grandiose delusions
-
beliefs that one holds special power, unique knowledge, or is extremely important
- Gross motor skills
-
focus on large muscle groups that control our arms and legs and involve larger movements
- Group polarization
-
the strengthening of an original group attitude after the discussion of views within a group
- gyri
-
bumps or ridges on the cerebral cortex (singular: gyrus)
- hallucination
-
a perceptual experience that occurs in the absence of external stimulation
- halo effect
-
the tendency to let the overall impression of an individual color the way in which we feel about their character
- happiness
-
consists of three distinct elements: the pleasant life, the good life, and the meaningful life
- Heritability
-
the proportion of difference among people that is attributed to genetics
- heuristic
-
mental shortcuts that are used to solve problems
- hindbrain
-
division of the brain containing the medulla, pons, and cerebellum
- Hindsight bias
-
leads you to believe that the event you just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn’t
- hippocampus
-
structure in the temporal lobe associated with learning and memory
- Homeostasis
-
state of equilibrium—biological conditions, such as body temperature, are maintained at optimal levels
- Homophily
-
the tendency for people to form social networks, including friendships, marriage, business relationships, and many other types of relationships, with others who are similar
- hormones
-
chemical messenger released by endocrine glands
- Hostile aggression
-
motivated by feelings of anger with intent to cause pain; a fight in a bar with a stranger is an example of hostile aggression
- hypothalamus
-
forebrain structure that regulates sexual motivation and behavior and a number of homeostatic processes; serves as an interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system
- hypothesis
-
a tentative explanation
- id
-
contains our most primitive drives or urges, and is present from birth. It directs impulses for hunger, thirst, and sex
- ideal self
-
is the person that you would like to be
- Implicit memories
-
long-term memories that are not part of our consciousness
- in-group
-
a group that we identify with or see ourselves as belonging to
- Inattentional blindness
-
the failure to perceive stimuli that are in your environment
- indigenous approach
-
has led to the development of personality assessment instruments that are based on constructs relevant to the culture being studied
- inferiority complex
-
refers to a person’s feelings that they lack worth and don’t measure up to the standards of others or of society
- informational social influence
-
people conform because they believe the group is competent and has the correct information, particularly when the task or situation is ambiguous
- infradian rhythms
-
Biological rhythms lasting longer than 24 hours, such as menstruation, migration, and hibernation
- Insomnia
-
a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep
- instinct
-
a species-specific pattern of behaviour that is not learned
- instincts
-
innate behaviors that are triggered by a broader range of events, such as maturation and the change of seasons
- instrumental aggression
-
motivated by achieving a goal and does not necessarily involve intent to cause pain (Berkowitz, 1993); a contract killer who murders for hire displays instrumental aggression
- intrinsic
-
arising from internal factors
- intrinsic motivation
-
Being motivated by internal factors, such as a desire to reach a goal or wanting to get better at a task; doing something for yourself
- introspection
-
a process by which someone examines their own conscious experience as objectively as possible
- Involuntary treatment
-
refers to therapy that is not the individual’s choice
- IQ
-
intelligence quotient and describes a score earned on a test designed to measure intelligence
- iris
-
the colored portion of the eye
- James-Lange theory of emotion
-
asserts that emotions arise from physiological arousal
- Jet lag
-
a collection of symptoms that results from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our environment
- just noticeable difference
-
how much difference in stimuli is required to detect a difference between them
- just-world hypothesis
-
the belief that people get the outcomes they deserve
- justification of effort
-
we value goals and achievements that we put a lot of effort into
- lateralization
-
concept that each hemisphere of the brain is associated with specialized functions
- law of continuity
-
we are more likely to perceive continuous, smooth flowing lines rather than jagged, broken lines
- law of effect
-
behaviours that are followed by consequences that are satisfying to the organism are more likely to be repeated, and behaviours that are followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated
- learning
-
acquiring knowledge and skills through experience
- lens
-
a curved, transparent structure that serves to provide additional focus. The lens is attached to muscles that can change its shape to aid in focusing light that is reflected from near or far objects
- limbic system
-
collection of structures involved in processing emotion and memory
- Linear perspective
-
the fact that we perceive depth when we see two parallel lines that seem to converge in an image
- Long-term memory (LTM)
-
the continuous storage of information
- major depressive disorder
-
A mood disorder characterized by “depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day” (feeling sad, empty, hopeless, or appearing tearful to others), and loss of interest and pleasure in usual activities
- meaningful life
-
involves a deep sense of fulfillment that comes from using our talents in the service of the greater good
- medulla
-
hindbrain structure that controls automated processes like breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate
- mental set
-
where you persist in approaching a problem in a way that has worked in the past but is clearly not working now
- midbrain
-
division of the brain located between the forebrain and the hindbrain; contains the reticular formation
- Milgram's Obedience Study
-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fCVlI-_4GZQ
- Mnemonic devices
-
memory aids that help us organize information for encoding
- monocular cues
-
depth cues that require only one eye, such as in 2D paintings or photographs
- Mood
-
refers to a prolonged, less intense, affective state that does not occur in response to something we experience
- Mood disorders
-
characterized by severe disturbances in mood and emotions—most often depression, but also mania and elation
- Morbid obesity
-
having a BMI over 40
- Motivation
-
the wants or needs that direct behaviour toward a goal
- Motor development
-
occurs in an orderly sequence as infants move from reflexive reactions (e.g., sucking and rooting) to more advanced motor functioning
- Motor skills
-
our ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects
- MRI
-
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
magnetic fields used to produce a picture of the tissue being imaged - myelin sheath
-
fatty substance that insulates axons
- Natural concepts
-
created “naturally” through your experiences and can be developed from either direct or indirect experiences
- negative punishment
-
remove a pleasant stimulus to decrease behaviour
- negative reinforcement
-
an undesirable stimulus is removed to increase a behaviour
- Negative symptoms
-
those that reflect noticeable decreases and absences in certain behaviors, emotions, or drives
- neurons
- Neuroplasticity
-
nervous system's ability to change and adapt
- neuroticism
-
the tendency to experience negative emotions. People high on neuroticism tend to experience emotional instability and are characterized as angry, impulsive, and hostile.
- neurotransmitters
-
chemical messenger of the nervous system
- Nodes of Ranvier
-
open spaces that are found in the myelin sheath that encases the axon
- normative social influence
-
people conform to the group norm to fit in, to feel good, and to be accepted by the group
- Norming
-
giving a test to a large population so data can be collected comparing groups, such as age groups
- Obedience
-
the change of an individual’s behaviour to comply with a demand by an authority figure
- Obsessions
-
characterized as persistent, unintentional, and unwanted thoughts and urges that are highly intrusive, unpleasant, and distressing
- Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders
-
a group of overlapping disorders that generally involve intrusive, unpleasant thoughts and repetitive behaviours
- occipital lobe
-
part of the cerebral cortex associated with visual processing; contains the primary visual cortex
- Openness to experience
-
characterized by imagination, feelings, actions, and ideas. People who score high on this factor tend to be curious and have a wide range of interests.
- opponent-process theory
-
suggests that color is coded in opponent pairs: black-white, yellow-blue, and green-red
- optic chiasm
-
information from the right visual field (which comes from both eyes) is sent to the left side of the brain, and information from the left visual field is sent to the right side of the brain.
- optic nerve
-
carries visual information from the retina to the brain
- out-group
-
a group that we view as fundamentally different from us
- overgeneralization
-
refers to an extension of a language rule to an exception to the rule
- overjustification effect
- paranoid delusions
-
involve the (false) belief that other people or agencies are plotting to harm the person
- parasympathetic nervous system
-
associated with routine, day-to-day operations of the body (e.g., rest-and-digest)
- parietal lobe
-
part of the cerebral cortex involved in processing various sensory and perceptual information; contains the primary somatosensory cortex
- Perception
-
the way sensory information is organized, interpreted, and consciously experienced
- perceptual hypotheses
-
educated guesses that we make while interpreting sensory information
- peripheral route
-
the peripheral route of persuasion relies on association with positive characteristics such as positive emotions and celebrity endorsement
- permissive style
-
the kids run the show and anything goes. Permissive parents make few demands and rarely use punishment. They tend to be very nurturing and loving, and may play the role of friend rather than parent
- PET scan
-
positron emission tomography (PET) scan
involves injecting individuals with a mildly radioactive substance and monitoring changes in blood flow to different regions of the brain - Physical development
-
involves growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness
- pituitary gland
-
secretes a number of key hormones, which regulate fluid levels in the body, and a number of messenger hormones, which direct the activity of other glands in the endocrine system
- pleasant life
-
realized through the attainment of day-to-day pleasures that add fun, joy, and excitement to our lives
- PNS
-
connects the brain and spinal cord to the muscles, organs and senses in the periphery of the body
- pons
-
hindbrain structure that connects the brain and spinal cord; involved in regulating brain activity during sleep
- positive punishment
-
add an undesirable stimulus to decrease a behaviour
- positive reinforcement
-
a desirable stimulus is added to increase a behaviour
- post-traumatic stress disorder
-
a chronic stress reaction characterized by experiences and behaviours that may include intrusive and painful memories of the stressor event, jumpiness, persistent negative emotional states, detachment from others, angry outbursts, and avoidance of reminders of the event
- Practical intelligence
-
find solutions that work in your everyday life by applying knowledge based on your experiences
- prefrontal cortex
-
area in the frontal lobe responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning
- Prejudice
-
a negative attitude and feeling toward an individual based solely on one’s membership in a particular social group
- Primary sexual characteristics
-
organs specifically needed for reproduction, like the uterus and ovaries in females and testes in males
- principle of closure
-
we organize our perceptions into complete objects rather than as a series of parts
- principle of similarity
-
things that are alike tend to be grouped together
- proactive interference
-
when old information hinders the recall of newly learned information
- problem-focused coping
-
one attempts to manage or alter the problem that is causing one to experience stress
- prosocial behaviour
-
Voluntary behaviour with the intent to help other people
- proximity
-
asserts that things that are close to one another tend to be grouped together
- psychological disorder
-
a condition characterized by abnormal thoughts, feelings, and behaviours
- Psychology
-
the scientific study of the mind and behavior
- Psychopathology
-
the study of psychological disorders, including their symptoms, etiology (i.e., their causes), and treatment
- Psychosocial development
-
involves emotions, personality, and social relationships
- pupil
-
the small opening in the eye through which light passes, and the size of the pupil can change as a function of light levels as well as emotional arousal
- Racism
-
prejudice and discrimination against an individual based solely on one’s membership in a specific racial group (such as toward African Americans, Asian Americans, Latinos, Native Americans, European Americans)
- range of reaction
-
asserts our genes set the boundaries within which we can operate, and our environment interacts with the genes to determine where in that range we will fall
- real self
-
the person you actually are
- Recall
-
you can access information without cues
- Reciprocity
-
the give and take in relationships
- Recognition
-
you identify information that you have previously learned after encountering it again
- Reflexes
-
a motor or neural reaction to a specific stimulus in the environment
- rehearsal
-
the conscious repetition of information to be remembered
- relearning
-
learning information that you previously learned
- Representative bias
-
a faulty way of thinking, in which you unintentionally stereotype someone or something
- resistant attachment
-
children tend to show clingy behaviour, but then they reject the attachment figure’s attempts to interact with them
- reticular formation
-
midbrain structure important in regulating the sleep/wake cycle, arousal, alertness, and motor activity
- retrieval
-
The act of getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness
- Retrograde amnesia
-
loss of memory for events that occurred prior to the trauma
- Rods
-
specialized photoreceptors that work well in low light conditions, and while they lack the spatial resolution and color function of the cones, they are involved in our vision in dimly lit environments as well as in our perception of movement on the periphery of our visual field
- role schema
-
makes assumptions about how individuals in certain roles will behave
- Scapegoating
-
the act of blaming an out-group when the in-group experiences frustration or is blocked from obtaining a goal
- Schachter-Singer two-factor theory of emotion
-
emotions are composed of two factors: physiological and cognitive
- schema
-
a mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts
- Schizophrenia
-
a devastating psychological disorder that is characterized by major disturbances in thought, perception, emotion, and behavior
- scientific theory
-
a broad explanation or group of explanations for some aspect of the natural world that is consistently supported by evidence over time
- Secondary sexual characteristics
-
physical signs of sexual maturation that do not directly involve sex organs, such as development of breasts and hips in girls, and development of facial hair and a deepened voice in boys
- secure attachment
-
The attachment figure is used as a secure base to explore the environment and is sought out in times of stress
- self-concept
-
an understanding of who you are
- Self-disclosure
-
the sharing of personal information
- Self-efficacy
-
an individual’s belief in their own capability to complete a task
- self-serving biases
-
those attributions that enable us to see ourselves in a favorable light (for example, making internal attributions for success and external attributions for failures)
- semantic encoding
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The encoding of words and their meaning
- semantic network
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Related concepts are linked, and the strength of the link depends on how often two concepts have been associated
- Semantics
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the process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words
- sensory adaptation
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stimuli that remain relatively constant over prolonged periods of time are no longer perceived - e.g., jumping into a pool and feeling cold at first, but after a while you no longer the cold.
- sensory memory
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storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes
- set-point theory
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each individual has an ideal body weight, or set point, which is resistant to change
- sexual orientation
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emotional and erotic attraction toward another individual
- shaping
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reward successive approximations of a target behaviour
- Short-term memory (STM)
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a temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory
- signal detection theory
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The ability to identify a stimulus when it is embedded in a distracting background
- Situationism
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the view that our behaviour and actions are determined by our immediate environment and surroundings
- social norms
- Social traps
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situations that arise when individuals or groups of individuals behave in ways that are not in their best interest and that may have negative, long-term consequences
- soma
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cell body (neuron)
- somatic delusion
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the belief that something highly abnormal is happening to one’s body (e.g., that one’s kidneys are being eaten by cockroaches)
- somatic nervous system
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relays sensory and motor information to and from the CNS
- somatosensory cortex
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essential for processing sensory information from across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain
- spontaneous recovery
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the return of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period
- Standardization
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the manner of administration, scoring, and interpretation of test results is consistent
- stereotype
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a specific belief or assumption about individuals based solely on their membership in a group, regardless of their individual characteristics
- stimulus discrimination
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When an organism learns to respond differently to various stimuli that are similar
- stimulus generalization
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when an organism demonstrates the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the condition stimulus
- Storage
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the creation of a permanent record of information
- structuralism
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focus on the contents of mental processes rather than their function
- Suggestibility
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Suggestibility describes the effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories
- Suicide
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death caused by self-directed injurious behaviour with any intent to die as the result of the behaviour
- sulci
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depressions or grooves in the cerebral cortex (singular: sulcus)
- superego
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develops as a child interacts with others, learning the social rules for right and wrong. The superego acts as our conscience; it is our moral compass that tells us how we should behave
- sympathetic nervous system
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involved in stress-related activities and functions (e.g., fight-or-flight response)
- Syntax
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refers to the way words are organized into sentences
- Taste aversion
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a type of conditioning in which an interval of several hours may pass between the conditioned stimulus (something ingested) and the unconditioned stimulus (nausea or illness)
- Temperament
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innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment
- temporal lobe
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part of cerebral cortex associated with hearing, memory, emotion, and some aspects of language; contains primary auditory cortex
- teratogen
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any environmental agent—biological, chemical, or physical—that causes damage to the developing embryo or fetus
- thalamus
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sensory relay for the brain - al senses, except smell, are routed through the thalamus
- Timbre
- top-down processing
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processing occurs when previous experience and expectations are used to recognize stimuli
- trial and error
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A problem solving strategy were you continue to try different solutions until you solved your problem
- trichromatic theory of color vision
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suggests that all colors in the spectrum can be produced by combining red, green, and blue. The three types of cones are each receptive to one of the colors
- Type A pattern
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an aggressive and chronic struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time
- Type B pattern
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those who are more relaxed and laid-back, in comparison to Type A individuals
- ultradian rhythms
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Biological rhythms that repeat throughout a 24 hour day, such as changes in body temperature, arousal, bowel activity and appetite
- unconscious
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refers to that mental activity of which we are unaware and are unable to access
- uninvolved style
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the parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful. They don’t respond to the child’s needs and make relatively few demands
- Visual encoding
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the encoding of images, and acoustic encoding is the encoding of sounds, words in particular
- voluntarism
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people have free will and should know the intentions of a psychological experiment if they were participating
- Voluntary treatment
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the person chooses to attend therapy to obtain relief from symptoms
- Wavelength
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refers to the number of waves that pass a given point in a given time period and is often expressed in terms of hertz (Hz), or cycles per second
- Weber’s law
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The difference threshold is a constant fraction of the original stimulus
- Wernicke’s area
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important for speech comprehension; located in the temporal lobe
- what pathway
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involved in object recognition and identification
- where/how pathway
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involved with location in space and how one might interact with a particular visual stimulus
- Yerkes-Dodson law
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a simple task is performed best when arousal levels are relatively high and complex tasks are best performed when arousal levels are lower