Citing Sources

Why Do We Cite?

For many students, referencing other sources or the practice of citation is closely linked to plagiarism. Students learn quickly that the academic community penalizes writers who present the ideas of others as their own. Consequently, students may feel that this is the primary motivation behind our citation rules. However, there is much more to citation than preventing plagiarism.

Citation is the currency of academia

Acknowledging the source of ideas isn’t just about ethics. Scholars’ job performance is often linked to their citation count, or the number of times their research papers are cited by other scholars. Some disciplines, particularly those in the sciences, use a formula called the h-index to measure the productivity and impact of researchers. A researcher’s h-index can determine if they get hired, promoted, or receive a research grant.

Scholarly journals also measure the average number of citations each article receives as an indication of the importance and reach of the journal. This number is called an impact factor. Journals with high impact factors are prestigious, and publishing in these journals is often an important milestone for researchers.

Citation is evidence

Academics use citations to provide evidence of their claims. For instance, if you claim that students procrastinate when writing more now than in previous generations, you should use a citation to show that this claim is based on credible information.

Because the university aims to advance human knowledge, we care a lot about using the best possible sources. We put a lot of effort into advancing knowledge systematically and checking this knowledge carefully. This is why academic journals use a peer-review system to assess every submitted article. Peer review means that every submission is checked by other experts in the field, who also provide suggestions on how to improve the article. This attention to the quality of knowledge is also why we want students to get into the habit of finding and using the best possible sources to develop their arguments.

In the chapter “Evaluating Sources” you will learn more about how to find the most credible and appropriate sources for academic writing.

Citation is about your own credibility as an author

In academic writing, citation demonstrates that you know about the important conversations in a discipline. When you cite important research in a field and you integrate it well into your own argument or research, you are showing that you understand the implications of your ideas and how they fit into the broader context. Citation helps you to demonstrate why your ideas matter.

As an undergraduate student, you are just beginning this process of learning the important conversations in your field, and your instructors will likely not expect you to have a full grasp of this yet. However, as your journey continues at university, learning to recognize key conversations in your field and responding to them in your papers will become more important.

What Information Should You Cite?

Citing sources is often depicted as a straightforward, rule-based practice. In fact, there are many grey areas around citation, and learning how to apply citation guidelines takes practice and education. If you are confused by it, you are not alone.

Here are some guidelines to help you navigate citation practices.

Cite when you are directly quoting. This is the easiest rule to understand. If you are stating word-for-word what someone else has already written, you must put quotes around those words and you must give credit to the original author. Not doing so would mean letting your reader believe these words are your own and represent your own thinking.

Cite when you are summarizing and paraphrasing. This is a trickier area to understand. First of all, summarizing and paraphrasing are two related practices, but they are not the same. Again, summarizing is when you read a text, consider the main points, and provide a shorter version of what you learned. Paraphrasing is when you restate what the original author said in your own words and in your own tone. Both summarizing and paraphrasing require good writing skills and an accurate understanding of the material you are trying to convey. Summarizing and paraphrasing are not easy to do when you are a beginning academic researcher, but these skills become easier to perform over time with practice.

Cite when you are citing something that is highly debatable. For example, if you want to claim that an oil pipeline is necessary for economic development, you will have to contend with those who say that it produces few jobs and has a high risk of causing an oil spill that would be devastating to wildlife and tourism. To do so, you’ll need experts on your side.

When Should You Not Cite?

Don’t cite when what you are saying is your own insight. Research involves forming opinions and insights around what you learn. You may be citing several sources that have helped you learn, but at some point, you are integrating your own opinion, conclusion, or insight into the work. The fact that you are NOT citing it helps the reader understand that this portion of the work is your unique contribution, developed through your own research efforts.

Don’t cite when you are stating common knowledge. What is common knowledge is sometimes difficult to discern. Generally, quick facts like historical dates or events are not cited because they are common knowledge.

Examples of information that would not need to be cited include:

• Partition in India happened on August 15th, 1947.
• Vancouver is the 8th biggest city in Canada.

Some quick facts, such as statistics, are trickier. For example, the number of gun- related deaths per year probably should be cited, because there are a lot of ways this number could be determined (does the number include murder only, or suicides and accidents, as well?) and there might be different numbers provided by different organizations, each with an agenda around gun laws.

A guideline that can help with determining whether or not to cite facts is to determine whether the same data is repeated in multiple sources. If it is not, it is best to cite.

The other thing that makes this determination difficult might be that what seems new and insightful to you might be common knowledge to an expert in the field. You have to use your best judgment, and probably err on the side of over-citing, as you are learning to do academic research. You can seek the advice of your instructor, a writing tutor, or a librarian. Knowing what is and is not common knowledge is a practiced skill that gets easier with time and with your own increased knowledge.

Any idea or fact taken from an outside source must be cited, in both the body of your paper and the references. The only exceptions are facts or general statements that are common knowledge. Common knowledge facts or general statements are commonly supported by and found in multiple sources. For example, a writer would not need to cite the statement that most breads, pastas, and cereals are high in carbohydrates; this is well known and well documented. However, if a writer explained in detail the differences among the chemical structures of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, a citation would be necessary. When in doubt, cite!

What Are Citation Styles?

APA, CSE, Chicago style, MLA, Turabian: These are acronyms and words that you have probably heard before in high school and university in relation to citation; they are the names of citation styles.

Citation styles are writing conventions that academic writers use to help their readers find their sources as quickly as possible. Disciplinary associations like the American Psychological Association (APA), the Council of Science Editors (CSE), and the Modern Language Association (MLA) set the standards for disciplines in their broad disciplinary areas. For instance, the American Psychological Association (APA) style is used by psychology, sociology, economics, and other social sciences. The standards set by the disciplinary associations will reflect the needs of each disciplinary area. For instance, APA style, often used in social sciences, emphasizes the date of publication because this matters in social sciences; an economics publication from the 1920s is not likely as relevant to current economic research as a more recent one. However, MLA style, often used by humanities disciplines, does not emphasize date of publication because humanities disciplines often examine and use older texts and publications as sources.

Disciplinary organizations like APA, CSE, and MLA publish citation style guidebooks and will update the citation styles regularly to reflect changes in our information ecosystem. For instance, citation styles had to be updated after the introduction of the Internet. Similarly, the disciplinary organizations will update their styles as we better understand the role that Generative AI will play in academic writing and research.

Citation styles typically have three components:

1. Standards for in-text citations. In-text citations are placed within your text to indicate that an idea is not your own. The in-text citations do not include all of the information about a source; they usually have just enough information so the reader can find an entry in the reference list with the complete citation. Some citation styles use footnote or endnote numbers for in-text citations (i.e., CSE or Chicago), but others use information such as the author’s name, year of publication, and page number within brackets (i.e., APA or MLA).
2. Standards for full references and reference lists. Citation styles provide standards for reference lists where the full citation information for a source appears. The standards will indicate where to put the full reference (footnotes, endnotes or a bibliographic list), what information to include, how to order the information, and how to format it. They will also indicate the name for the list. For instance, APA calls the list “References,” where MLA calls it “Works Cited.”
3. Standards for formatting and style. Some citation styles have specific information about how papers should be formatted. For instance, APA specifies how your title should be set up, how wide your page margins should be, and what font type you should use.Citation styles can also provide guidance on stylistic issues such as capitalization, spelling, and hyphenation.

When your instructor asks you to write a paper using a specific citation style, you can be sure they refer to the in-text citations and references. Some instructors will care about the formatting and style guidelines as well, but others may not. Ask your instructor directly if you are unclear whether they will also assess the formatting of your paper.

Additional Resources

The University of Alberta Library’s webpage “Citation and Reference Management” provides up-to-date information about citation styles like APA, CSE, and MLA.

Purdue OWL’s pages on Research and Citation Resources have comprehensive information on citation.

Attributions

“Citing Sources” by Nancy Bray, Introduction to Academic Writing, University of Alberta, is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0

• The sections “What Information Should You Cite?” and “When Should You Not Cite” are from “Chapter 2: Researching With Integrity” by Carrie Fraser, Academic Writing for Success Canadian Edition 2.0, Loyalist College, is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0