9 Theories of Technology (by Amber McLinden)
Introduction
To what extent does technology shape our interactions with the world, and conversely, how much influence do we exert in shaping technology to fit our needs and preferences? From shaping interpersonal relationships to society at large, technological determinism-based theories aim to focus their study of communication on the technology we use to answer this question.
Two theories stand out in this framework. First, Marshall McLuhan’s theory of media ecology aims to consider how technological advances in communication influence the organization of society. McLuhan believed technology strongly influences how we receive information, so much so that his famed phrase “the medium is the message” has become a lasting representation of his work. Second, media multiplexity, conceptualized by Caroline Haythornthwaite, aims to mainly analyze how our relationships are affected by the technology we use. Specifically, Haythornthwaite examined the relationship between the strength of relational ties and the media we use to communicate with those individuals. Both theories offer us a look at how technology itself influences our interaction and understanding of life and relationships.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter you will be able to
- Explain the concept of technological determinism.
- Identify the importance of both media ecology and media multiplexity in understanding how technology shapes society.
- Recognize real-world and contemporary examples of both approaches.
- Describe the limitations of these theories.
History of Theories of Technology and Key Thinkers
The history of theories concerning technology’s impact on communication is rich and multifaceted.
Media ecology examines how media and communication technologies shape human perception and culture. Harold Innis (1894–1952), an early contributor to media ecology, analyzed how media impact the rise and fall of civilizations, focusing on space-biased and time-biased media (Soules, 2007). Building on Innis’s work, Marshall McLuhan (1911–1980) further developed media ecology by introducing influential concepts like “global village” and “the medium is the message.” His 1964 book, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man, anticipated the effects of new media technologies, reflecting his forward-thinking approach (Islas & Bernal, 2016).
In contrast, media multiplexity, introduced in 2005, explores the relationship between communication channels and interpersonal bonds. This theory builds on Mark Granovetter’s (1973) foundational work on social network theory, particularly his paper “The Strength of Weak Ties,” which examines strong and weak ties in social networks. Caroline Haythornthwaite, a key figure in information science, further developed media multiplexity, applying it to various communication contexts. Together, these theories and researchers shed light on the intricate interplay between technology, communication, and social dynamics in our digital age.
Foundational Concepts
For these different theories some key concepts are worth exploring.
Technological determinism
The term “technological determinism” was coined by the American economist and sociologist Thorstein Veblen in his book The Theory of the Leisure Class published in 1899 (Chandler, 2020). However, the concept has been developed and expanded upon by various scholars and thinkers over the years.
As you have likely discerned from your reading so far, many communication theories aim to understand the impact of one particular piece of the communications matrix and how this impacts how society functions. For theorists like McLuhan and Haythornthwaite, the element of importance is technology. Technological determinism describes a theoretical assumption that society is primarily influenced by technology. In other words, when a new technology is developed, such as the ability to send messages electronically, that technological innovation reshapes society and reorganizes how we interact with each other, how we view each other, and how we understand the world around us. The change in society is a result of technology, not the other way around (Chandler, 2020).
An Example in Practice
McLuhan himself stated in Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (1964) that we can understand the influence of technology beyond just media consumed into the physical mediums that impact society profoundly. The perfect example of this is the automobile. Think about how our cities and towns are built to support transportation by car. Roads, parking lots, street parking, and even the car dealerships that make up auto malls throughout our spaces are all a result of vehicles. The concept of urban sprawl, in which suburbs of houses are built outwardly from the city centre, is not a problem for families who have access to a vehicle and can drive for an hour to reach places important to our daily lives like grocery stores, workplaces and recreational outdoor spaces. For those without a car, though, the way the motorized vehicle has shaped society creates problems of access. Technology, in this case, truly shaped our lives—for better or worse.
The medium is the message
The medium is the message, coined by Canadian communication theorist Marshall McLuhan, is also the title of the first chapter in his 1964 book Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man.
The medium is the message simply means that the form or medium through which content is delivered influences how the message is perceived, often more than the content itself. McLuhan argued that each medium—whether it’s television, radio, or print—shapes and controls the scale and form of human association and action. Thus, understanding the medium is crucial for understanding its impact on society, as it affects how the message is received and interpreted.
An Example in Practice
Examples of the “medium is the message” can be found around us.
Television, with its visual and auditory elements, plays a significant role in shaping how information is perceived by viewers. The rapid pace of television programming, coupled with the integration of sound bites and visual effects, moulds the message being conveyed, influencing audience interpretation and understanding.
Social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram serve as crucial mediums for communication and information sharing in the digital age. Each platform’s distinct features, including character limits, image-focused layouts, and algorithmic timelines, shape the framing and reception of messages by users, contributing to the platform’s unique communication dynamics.
From a comparative perspective, for IKEA, in both radio and TV commercials, the choice of medium significantly influences how the message is conveyed and received, illustrating the concept that the medium is the message. Radio advertisements leverage the auditory medium to create a playful and humorous atmosphere through the use of a Swedish accent, aligning with the medium’s ability to engage listeners’ imaginations and evoke emotional responses through sound. This approach underscores the idea that the medium itself shapes the message, as the comedic tone adds an element of enjoyment and anticipation to the IKEA experience.
Conversely, the TV commercials utilizes the visual medium to focus on the actual products and their practical applications in real-life settings. By showcasing authentic interactions with IKEA furniture, the commercial demonstrates how the medium influences the message by emphasizing visual appeal and highlighting the tangible benefits of the products. This visual presentation allows viewers to directly see the furniture’s features and envision how it could enhance their own living spaces, underscoring how the medium shapes the conveyed message by providing a compelling visual narrative.
In both cases, whether through humour in the radio ads or product demonstration in the TV commerciasl, the chosen medium plays a crucial role in shaping how the message is perceived and interpreted by the audience, illustrating the intrinsic connection between media and message.
Time- and space-biased media
One of the early influencers of technological determinism was Harold Innis (1951), who initially explored how communication “biases” characterize technology’s impact on society. Innis (1951) proposed that the characteristics of communication mediums significantly influence the dissemination of knowledge across both space and time (Logan, 2022).
Innis conceptualized time-biased media as those capable of transcending time, and enduring for extended periods. Examples include clay tablets and oral culture, which can persist through generations, albeit without encouraging territorial expansion (Innis, 1951). In contrast, space-biased media eliminates spatial constraints, allowing information to travel swiftly over vast distances. Writing, according to Innis, exemplifies this, as it emphasizes the present and future while facilitating the growth of political authorities and decentralized institutions (Innis, 1951).
Through his studies on the rise and fall of empires, Innis observed that an over-reliance on either time-biased or space-biased media could jeopardize societal organization, values, and hierarchies. He concluded that such biases lacked flexibility and were unsustainable, contributing to the success or failure of empires not solely based on political or military factors but on their primary reliance on specific communication mediums (Belshaw, 2012).
Here’s a comparison chart highlighting the characteristics of time-biased and space-biased media:
Table 9.1
Time-Biased versus Space-Biased Media
| Characteristic | Time-Biased Media | Space-Biased Media |
| Temporal Influence | Emphasizes endurance over time | Prioritizes swift dissemination |
| Examples | Oral traditions, clay tablets | Social media platforms, radio broadcasts |
| Geographical Reach | Localized, fosters cultural continuity | Global, transcends geographical boundaries |
| Permanence | Enduring, persists through generations | Ephemeral, content quickly loses relevance |
This chart provides a concise overview of the key differences between time-biased and space-biased media, focusing on their temporal influence, examples, geographical reach, and permanence.
An Example in Practice
Oral storytelling has been a fundamental aspect of First Nations culture since ancient times (Augustine, n.d.). Indigenous communities have traditionally passed down their cultural heritage through spoken narratives, often accompanied by ceremonial elements like drumming and dancing (Augustine, n.d.). Despite misconceptions suggesting otherwise, oral traditions hold immense historical significance. Augustine (n.d.) stresses that oral culture serves as a dynamic repository for traditions and history, evolving to reflect changing values and traditions. Unlike written records, oral histories prioritize communal ownership, with no single individual claiming exclusive authority over the narrative (Augustine, n.d.). This fluid and communal nature of oral storytelling aligns with the characteristics of time-biased media, fostering social cohesion and cultural continuity within specific geographic contexts.
In contrast, contemporary communication platforms such as social media exemplify space-biased media. A single post on platforms like Instagram or TikTok can instantly reach millions of users worldwide. The immediate and widespread impact of viral content is undeniable, with videos amassing millions of likes and views within a brief period. However, this influence is ephemeral, as the transient nature of social media dictates that trending content quickly loses relevance amid the constant influx of new information. While social media transcends geographical boundaries, its impact lacks the enduring resonance associated with time-biased media.
The Four Epochs
Influenced by the ideas of Innis, McLuhan (1964) expanded upon the concepts of time-biased and space-biased media to develop his theory of media ecology (Griffin et al., 2023). McLuhan (1964) divided the history of Western civilization into four distinct epochs, each defined by a dominant communication technology: the tribal/oral epoch, the literate epoch or manuscript culture, the print epoch or the Gutenberg Galaxy, and the electronic epoch (Griffin et al., 2023). According to McLuhan (1964), these epochs, each lasting around 300 to 400 years, reflect shifts driven by innovations in media technology, reshaping the nature of human interaction and societal structures.
The Oral Epoch
During this period, the senses of hearing, touch, taste, and smell were more developed than visual perception (Griffin et al., 2023). These senses, alongside sight, achieved a balance and harmony, particularly due to the significant role of hearing in an era where much vital information was communicated acoustically (Griffin et al., 2023). Reflecting on the survival needs of early humans, hearing played a pivotal role in discerning both advantageous and potentially threatening information, shaping their interactions and responses. McLuhan also argued that these “primitive” societies led richer and more complex lives, as their reliance on sound fostered a more holistic perception of the world, promoting spontaneity (Griffin et al., 2023).
While McLuhan depicted the tribal epoch as a period devoid of written communication, historical evidence contradicts this notion, revealing the existence of various forms of written expression, such as cave paintings and Egyptian hieroglyphs. However, without the development of a universal alphabet, the meanings conveyed by these writings often remained inaccessible once the individuals of that era passed away. Consequently, our understanding of this epoch acknowledges that its inhabitants served as living conduits of cultural transmission, with the loss of individuals resulting in the disappearance of their cultural heritage (Griffin et al., 2023).
An Example in Practice
Between 30,000 and 35,000 years ago, humans began representing their environment through cave paintings. Notably, the Chauvet Cave in France, discovered in 1999, houses some of the oldest and best-preserved examples of these artworks (Bradshaw Foundation, n.d.). The cave paintings feature familiar motifs like red handprints, large horses, and bison. However, their significance remains enigmatic, particularly within the context of the tribal epoch. Although technically “written,” the meanings behind these artworks elude us, as they were created without the aid of a universal understanding like the alphabet. While scholars can offer interpretations, such as associations with animal spirits or successful hunts, the true intentions of the artists remain obscured, highlighting the challenges of interpreting communication during this era.
The Literate Epoch
The Greek alphabet marked the onset of a new epoch, particularly with the introduction of vowels. This innovation, according to McLuhan (1964), transformed written language into a “true alphabet,” enabling its use for purposes beyond storytelling, such as categorization, typology, and logic. These advancements catalyzed societal developments, including the emergence of rational philosophy, legal systems, abstract science, and objective historical documentation, as discussed in Chapter 3 on rhetoric.
However, the transition to literacy also posed new challenges. Unlike in oral cultures where context preservation is inherent, literacy introduced the risk of context removal (Griffin et al., 2023). McLuhan observed that the written word shifted society from a collective to an individualistic environment, as writers and readers became physically detached from the text, transforming writing and reading into solitary activities (Griffin et al., 2023). This profound cultural shift defines the literate epoch.
An Example in Practice
During the literate epoch, a profound transformation occurred in communication dynamics, marked by the emergence of individual interpretation and critical thinking. Unlike the collective nature of tribal cultures, where information was primarily conveyed through oral traditions, the advent of literacy shifted the focus to written texts, fostering a sense of detachment from the collective environment. In literate societies, written messages often allowed for varied interpretations, as exemplified by warning signs. These signs, devoid of context, prompt questions about their origin, purpose, and relevance, highlighting the inherent ambiguity in written communication.
Furthermore, the literate epoch spurred the development of critical thinking skills, essential for navigating complex written texts. This era also revealed the challenges posed by written communication, illustrated by the misquotation of religious texts. For instance, the phrase “money is the root of all evil” misrepresents the original biblical quote from Timothy 6:10, which states “The love of money is the root of all evil.” Such subtle alterations can profoundly influence interpretations and beliefs, underscoring the need for careful reading and critical analysis in the literate epoch and beyond. It’s worth noting that the Bible was not mass-produced until the print epoch, further emphasizing the impact of technological advancements on communication practices.
The Print Epoch
The second major technological advancement that triggered a significant cultural shift was the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg around 1440. Gutenberg’s movable-type printing press revolutionized communication by mechanizing the process of reproducing written material (Griffin et al., 2023). Unlike the laborious task of hand-copying texts, the printing press allowed for the rapid production of multiple copies. For example, while a scribe might take three years to produce a single Bible, the Gutenberg press could produce 180 copies in the same period.
The widespread adoption of the printing press facilitated the dissemination of various types of information, ranging from religious texts to scientific knowledge, maps, calendars, and almanacs. One of the most significant impacts of the printing press was its role in making books more affordable and accessible to a broader audience. McLuhan (1964) viewed the printing press as a precursor to the Industrial Revolution due to its demonstration of mass production capabilities.
Moreover, McLuhan (1964) observed that the printing press contributed to significant cultural changes, including the standardization and proliferation of fixed national languages. This linguistic standardization fostered a sense of national identity and unity, countering the sense of isolation and individualism prevalent in the preceding epoch. The printing press played a pivotal role in shaping cultural values and facilitating the emergence of new social and political dynamics.
An Example in Practice
Wars are typically waged on the battlefield, but the power of words can sometimes be equally decisive. This was vividly demonstrated during the print epoch, where the ability to reproduce materials through printing played a pivotal role in shaping national consciousness and inspiring movements for independence, echoing the sense of unity seen in the tribal epoch.
A notable example of this dynamic unfolded during the Greek War of Independence (1821–1829). The printing press emerged as a potent tool in fostering Greek national identity and igniting the revolutionary fervour that aimed to free Greece from Ottoman rule and establish an independent state (American School of Classical Studies at Athens, n.d.). In the lead-up to the conflict, the printing press became a platform for expressing the spiritual aspirations and broader social and cultural objectives of the Greek people. Greek nationalist leaders, intellectuals, and activists leveraged this technological innovation to disseminate nationalist literature, revolutionary declarations, and rallying cries, mobilizing support among the populace and garnering international sympathy. Consequently, the dissemination of nationalist sentiments through printed materials emerged as a central, if not the predominant, driving force behind the struggle for independence.
The Electronic Epoch
The third technology that captured McLuhan’s (1964) attention was the telegraph, marking the onset of the electronic epoch. Unlike its predecessors, this era was characterized by the decoupling of communication from physical geography. In 1835, Samuel Morse, a professor at New York University, devised Morse Code, a set of sounds representing letters of the English alphabet. Just three years later, he presented his vision of electronic communication to the American Congress.
The telegraph, though rudimentary by today’s standards, represented a groundbreaking advancement in human history by divorcing communication from transportation. Unlike earlier technologies, messages could now traverse distances faster than physical messengers, emancipating communication from the constraints of geography. McLuhan posited that electronic media re-tribalized humanity, plunging us into a realm of symbolic communication reminiscent of pre-alphabetic oral traditions, where sound and touch held greater significance than sight (Griffin et al., 2023).
This newfound instant communication revolutionized various facets of society. It facilitated economic speculation, bolstered stock markets, streamlined railroad operations, and enabled centralized decision-making for troop movements and colonial endeavours. Reflective of the cultural transformation of this era is McLuhan’s (1962, 1964) concept of the “global village,” which epitomized the era’s increasing globalization. In this interconnected world, local events were increasingly influenced by global occurrences, blurring the boundaries between presence and absence, and engendering a sense of ubiquity and interconnectedness.
An Example in Practice
On July 19, 1969, households around the world were captivated by an 11-hour broadcast that marked a pivotal moment in human history: Neil Armstrong’s first steps on the moon. This groundbreaking event, watched by millions, transcended geographical boundaries and cultural differences, symbolizing humanity’s collective aspiration for exploration beyond Earth’s limits (Science and Media Museum, 2019).
This broadcast exemplified McLuhan’s (1964) concept of the “global village” in the electronic epoch. Through the medium of television, individuals from diverse backgrounds and distant locations were instantaneously connected, sharing in the awe-inspiring experience of space exploration. It serves as a poignant reminder of technology’s profound ability to foster interconnectedness and facilitate immediate communication on a global scale.
Below is a summary of the Tribal, Literate, Print, and Electronic Epochs.
Table 9.2
Comparison of the Tribal, Literate, Print, and Electronic Epochs
| Epoch | Key Characteristics and Key Sense Engaged | Example in Practice |
| Tribal Epoch | Senses of hearing, touch, taste, and smell more developed than visual perception | Cave paintings and oral storytelling in ancient cultures |
| Reliance on sound for communication (hearing) | Indigenous communities passing down cultural heritage through oral traditions | |
| Literate Epoch | Introduction of true alphabet (Greek alphabet) transformed written language | Emergence of individual interpretation and critical thinking in written communication |
| Reliance on symbols in written form (sight) | Misquotation of religious texts and challenges of interpreting written communication | |
| Print Epoch | Invention of printing press revolutionized communication | Role of printed materials in fostering national identity and inspiring movements for independence |
| Standardization and proliferation of fixed national languages (sight) | Use of printed materials in the Greek War of Independence to mobilize support and disseminate nationalist sentiments | |
| Electronic Epoch | Telegraph decoupled communication from physical geography | Neil Armstrong’s moon landing broadcast symbolizing humanity’s collective aspiration for exploration beyond Earth’s limits |
| Instantaneous communication transcending geographical boundaries (hearing and sight) | The broadcast exemplifies McLuhan’s concept of the “global village” in the electronic epoch, fostering interconnectedness and immediate global communication |
This table provides a concise overview of the key characteristics and examples of each epoch, highlighting the significant shifts in communication dynamics throughout human history.
The Digital Epoch?
McLuhan’s (1964) perspective on the electronic epoch was largely optimistic, as he saw it as a means of reuniting humanity through collective communication akin to tribal societies. Despite McLuhan’s passing in 1980, his writings continue to resonate today, seemingly foreshadowing contemporary technological interactions.
However, not all scholars share McLuhan’s positive outlook on globalized communication. The emergence of social media has prompted some to propose a new digital epoch. In this electronic age, characterized by platforms like X (formerly known as Twitter), there appears to be a shift towards individualized and interpersonal interactions reminiscent of the literate epoch. Some media scholars argue that social media platforms encourage simplistic communication, impulsivity, and contribute to a decline in civility within public discourse.
An Example in Practice
Is social media responsible for a decline in intelligence, mental health, etiquette, and fostering envy? Savastio (2013) argues that this emerging technology aligns with the concept of a new digital epoch. Her article suggests that students, on average, spend 12 hours daily engaging with social media platforms, which have become primary sources for socializing, accessing news, and entertainment. The research highlighted in this article states that while social media may temporarily increase our self-esteem, it ultimately hampers our ability to subsequently perform cognitive tasks (Savastio, 2013). On top of that, research found that 80 percent of users on Facebook surveyed agree they experience more rude interactions on the platform than in face-to-face interactions (Savastio, 2013). Would you agree with this information? Is social media driving us back into the individual, personal interactions that characterized the literate epoch?
The Tetrad
McLuhan’s work has inspired the use of the tetrad of media effects to analyze the societal impacts of any technology or medium from a historically situated perspective. This framework, published after his death in Laws of Media by Marshall McLuhan and Eric McLuhan (1988), consists of four key questions:
- Enhancement: What does the medium amplify or intensify?
- Obsolescence: What does the medium make obsolete or diminish in prominence?
- Retrieval : What does the medium retrieve from the past that was previously lost?
- Reversal: What does the medium become when pushed to its limits? What are its downsides?
It is presented visually below.
Figure 9.1
The Tetrad
Image credit: CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=101180731
These laws of the tetrad operate simultaneously, offering a comprehensive understanding of the impacts of a medium on society. McLuhan & McLuhan’s (1988) approach diverges from Innis’s (1951) media theory by suggesting that a medium can “overheat” or reverse into an opposing form when pushed to its extremes, rather than causing a full scale collapse of a society. For example, when a medium reaches its limit, it undergoes a reversal in its intended function. Consider the highway, designed to expedite travel. However, with excessive traffic, it can become congested, leading to gridlock. This transition demonstrates the medium’s “overheating,” where its original benefits turn into drawbacks. The term “tipping point” marks the critical juncture when the medium’s operation changes, resulting in adverse effects.
The tetrad of media effects proposed by McLuhan & McLuhan (1988) provides a framework for understanding the societal impacts of different communication technologies or mediums. While the tetrad (McLuhan & McLuhan, 1988) focuses on the effects of specific technologies on society, the concept of epochs, as outlined by McLuhan (1964), categorizes historical periods based on dominant communication technologies.
The relationship between the tetrad and the epochs lies in their shared goal of examining the interactions between technology and society. The tetrad helps analyze the effects of individual technologies by considering how they enhance, obsolesce, retrieve, and reverse aspects of human culture and communication. On the other hand, the epochs concept divides history into distinct periods characterized by the dominance of particular communication technologies, such as the tribal epoch, the literate epoch, the print epoch, and the electronic epoch.
By applying the tetrad to different epochs, researchers can delve deeper into the specific effects of dominant technologies during each historical period. For example, one could analyze how the advent of the printing press during the print epoch enhanced the dissemination of knowledge, obsolesced handwritten manuscripts, retrieved classical texts from antiquity, and eventually reversed into digital forms of information dissemination.
In summary, while the tetrad offers a systematic framework for analyzing the effects of individual technologies, the concept of epochs provides a broader historical context for understanding the evolution of communication technology and its impact on society over time. Together, these concepts contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the complex relationship between technology and culture throughout history.
An Example in Practice
One medium that exemplifies the principles of the tetrad is podcasting. Let’s explore how podcasting embodies each aspect of the tetrad, offering a nuanced understanding of its influence on society.
Table 9:3
An example of the Tetrad in Practice
| Aspect | Description |
| Enhancement | Podcasts enhance talk and text by drawing on human speech, through conversations and scripted dialogue, making them a pure form of verbal communication. They provide a platform for in-depth discussions and storytelling, far more than other mediums like television. Additionally, the presence of show notes and the need for users to make decisions based on them emphasizes the role of text in podcast consumption. |
| Obsolescence | Podcasts disrupt traditional notions of media time by removing the constraints of broadcast schedules. Unlike traditional radio or television, podcast content can be consumed at any time, allowing listeners to pause, skip, binge, rewind, or even listen at double speed according to their preferences. This flexibility challenges the concept of fixed broadcast slots. |
| Retrieval | Podcasting revives older media forms such as documentary, drama, and talks, drawing from the rich history of radio. Many of these formats were replaced by music radio as radio became a secondary medium. However, the time flexibility offered by podcasts allows listeners to explore more complex genres and formats, revitalizing these older forms of media content. |
| Reversal | Podcasting may demonstrate a narrowing of consumption patterns. As algorithms and personalized recommendations cater to individual tastes, there is a risk that listeners may be led into consuming increasingly narrow content patterns, potentially limiting exposure to diverse perspectives and genres. |
Media Multiplexity
Cybernetic tradition
Communication theory provides different perspectives to analyze our engagement with technology. As discussed in Chapter 1, advocates of cybernetics (one of the seven foundational traditions in communication theory) examine the mechanics of communication through the lens of systems (Apuke, 2018). Interestingly, cybernetics originated from the quest of an MIT scientist to classify artificial intelligence systems (Apuke, 2018). Thus, cybernetics entails comprehending communication as a multifaceted system where interacting components mutually influence one another – from the source of information to transmitting and receiving technologies to the receiver (Apuke, 2018). Nonetheless, cybernetic theorists acknowledge the potential for disruptive information.
For instance, when placing a call to a friend, static interference might disrupt the receiver signal, thereby altering the message’s reception. Consequently, while theories falling under the cybernetic framework extend beyond mere technological considerations, it is ultimately technology that determines the smoothness of message reception without interruption.
Social networks
Various communication frameworks can be analyzed as systems, but scholars within the cybernetic tradition specifically focus on mapping out social networks to understand our relationships (Griffin et al., 2023). This aligns with the concept of technological determinism, which posits that our social networks are primarily influenced by the media we use.
A relatively recent theory proposed by Haythornthwaite (2005) delves into how our internet usage impacts our interpersonal relationships. Our interactions across individuals create networks or patterns of social connections, particularly evident in contemporary times with the widespread use of social media (Foucault Welles & González-Bailón, 2019). These online platforms serve as the foundation for managing attention and information flow, functioning as producers, curators, and feedback mechanisms for the messages we exchange (Foucault Welles & González-Bailón, 2019).
In summary, the past two decades have witnessed significant shifts in human social practices and the technologies that both shape and are shaped by them (Foucault Welles & González-Bailón, 2019).
An Example in Practice
Facebook serves as a prime example to illustrate the dynamics of social networks in the digital age. The platform’s technology provides the infrastructure through which we navigate and understand social connections, a core concept in communication theory. Users engage with a diverse spectrum of individuals on Facebook, spanning from close friends and family to colleagues and acquaintances they wish to maintain contact with.
These connections form the basis for understanding tie strength, a pivotal aspect in social network analysis. For instance, interactions with acquaintances on Facebook may be limited to occasional greetings like “Happy Birthday!” or playful gestures such as poking. In contrast, communication with close friends and family tends to be more robust and multifaceted, involving messaging, sharing content, posting on each other’s walls, and tagging photos.
Through its various features and functionalities, Facebook is a micro-example of how different technological elements shape the dynamics of social interactions and enable users to modulate the intensity and frequency of their communication with different network connections.
Strong and weak ties
Media multiplexity posits that our social networks are influenced by our combined use of various communication channels, ranging from face-to-face interactions to exchanges on social media platforms (Foucault Welles, González-Bailón, 2019). Central to this theory is the distinction between strong ties and weak ties within social networks, a concept that draws from the work of scholars like Mark Granovetter.
Strong ties refer to relationships that demand significant time and emotional investment, such as those with romantic partners, immediate family members, and close friends. In contrast, weak ties typically involve acquaintances, classmates, and distant relatives and require less time and energy (Griffin et al., 2023). Granovetter (1974) formalized the definition of tie strength, highlighting factors such as time spent together, emotional intensity, intimacy, and reciprocal services exchanged.
Despite the emphasis on strong ties in traditional social network analysis, Granovetter argued that weak ties play a crucial role in accessing diverse information and bridging connections between different social groups. While strong ties offer emotional support and a sense of identity, they may be limited in their ability to provide access to new resources and opportunities (Griffin et al., 2023).
Granovetter’s (1974) insights challenged previous notions that weak ties served no significant purpose, inspiring subsequent scholars like Haythornthwaite (2005) to explore the role of weak ties in sustaining social networks. By understanding the dynamics of tie strength and the interplay between strong and weak ties, researchers can gain valuable insights into the structure and functioning of social networks.
An Example in Practice
The concept of tie strength is best understood through our relationships. To grasp the idea of a strong tie, consider someone close to you, like a friend or family member. An example could be your closest friend from school whom you also spend time with outside of school. According to Granovetter, such a relationship is considered strong due to factors like the amount of time spent together, emotional intensity, intimacy, and reciprocal support exchanged (Griffin et al., 2023). In this case, you likely spend a significant amount of time with this friend, both in and out of school. You probably provide each other with emotional support and share personal details, such as struggles with academics or family issues. Additionally, you may engage in activities to support each other, like grabbing coffee together before school or helping out when one faces car troubles.
On the other hand, weak ties, such as colleagues or social media acquaintances, typically involve less engagement in these areas. You may only interact with them in one aspect of your life, such as at work or online. These relationships usually don’t consume much of your time, and conversations may revolve around surface-level topics. You’re unlikely to confide intimate details of your life to them. However, Granovetter points out that weak ties have a unique strength: they provide access to information and resources (Griffin et al., 2023). Even though your connection with them may be limited, they can be valuable for accessing job opportunities or other resources. For example, you might reach out to a weak tie on LinkedIn through a former colleague for assistance in the industry. Weak ties offer a wide network of connections, while strong ties, although closely connected with us, may not provide as much support in accessing new opportunities.
Media multiplexity’s propositions
Haythornthwaite (2005) discovered that how many media channels we use in a relationship often reveals whether we have a strong or weak tie with that person, According to her findings, media multiplexity theory values empirical evidence, often relying on collected data to show that the more diverse the media channels used with a person, the stronger the connection tends to be. This theory stands out from media ecology in that it views communication channels as interchangeable, prioritizing the quantity of channels over the specific technologies employed, contrary to what some technological determinists argue (Griffin et al., 2023). The research uncovered five key propositions that form the core principles of media multiplexity.
Proposition #1: Tie strength is positively associated with media multiplexity.
Haythornthwaite’s (2005) original research aimed to explore how online learners adapted to virtual environments, with a primary question being, “What happens to such relationships when face-to-face contact is unavailable or severely limited?” However, her investigation led her to delve into a previously unexplored area, now known as media multiplexity, which examines who communicates with whom, about what, and through which media channels (Haythornthwaite, 2005).
This examination of media multiplexity unveiled an intriguing finding: individuals with strong ties, characterized by frequent communication and close emotional bonds, tend to utilize a wider array of communication channels compared to those with weak ties (Foucault Welles, González-Bailón, 2019). This discovery challenges the concerns expressed in media ecology about the potential for communication technology to isolate individuals from close relationships or lead to the individualization of communication (Foucault Welles, González-Bailón, 2019).
Although initially observed in educational and organizational settings, scholars have since expanded the concept of media multiplexity into socio-psychological research, including communication studies (Griffin et al., 2023). This adaptation underscores the broader relevance and applicability of media multiplexity beyond its original contexts.
Proposition #2: Communication content differs by tie strength, not by medium.
The research also revealed that the nature of communication content does not vary significantly based on the medium used, as previously assumed by some scholars. Instead, it primarily differs based on the strength of the relationship (Haythornthwaite, 2005). For instance, if two individuals are connected solely through work, their communication is likely to revolve around work-related topics, regardless of the communication medium. On the other hand, if work friends discuss both work-related and social matters, they are likely to do so across any platform they use (Haythornthwaite, 2005). For example, you might have experienced chatting with work friends over Slack about plans to grab dinner after work.
Researchers focused on media multiplexity are particularly interested in understanding how ongoing relationships are maintained, rather than solely focusing on initial acquaintance phases (Griffin et al., 2023). While Haythornthwaite initially observed this pattern in her research, some scholars suggest that this proposition may not always hold true due to the increasing number of communication channels available (Griffin et al., 2023).
Proposition #3: Tie strength and media multiplexity cause one another over time.
Haythornthwaite introduces a sub-theory known as “latent tie theory.” While we’ve discussed strong and weak ties, latent ties represent potential connections facilitated by the existence of a technological platform, even though communication hasn’t yet occurred. Haythornthwaite (2005) suggests that introducing a new communication medium results in three outcomes: it creates latent ties, reshapes weak ties by either forming new connections or disrupting existing ones, and has minimal impact on strong ties.
This proposition forms the foundation of media multiplexity theory. As more communication channels are utilized, ties tend to strengthen. Additionally, existing strong ties may utilize multiple channels to communicate within their complex and interdependent connections (Haythornthwaite, 2005). Consequently, as relationships evolve, so does the variety of communication methods employed.
Proposition #4: Changes in the media landscape particularly influence weak ties.
Media multiplexity theory acknowledges the ever-changing nature of our communication landscape, where we may sometimes lose access to specific communication channels. Whether it’s a workplace discontinuing a chat platform or a social media app ceasing operations, such changes are part of the evolving media environment.
Given that strong ties typically utilize multiple communication channels while weak or latent ties rely on fewer channels, it follows that alterations in the media landscape will have a minimal impact on strong ties but could significantly affect weak ties (Griffin et al., 2023). Haythornthwaite (2005) suggests that these changes could disrupt weak ties, as individuals in such pairs may lack the incentive to sustain the relationship to the same extent as those in strong ties. In contrast, individuals in strong ties, connected through various channels, are likely to adapt and find alternative means of communication if a particular platform becomes unavailable.
Proposition #5: Groups have hierarchies of media use expectations.
Haythornthwaite (2005) presents the idea of a “unidimensional scale” to illustrate how media usage is structured within groups. According to her, individuals who rely on only one medium tend to consistently use that same medium. Similarly, those who utilize two mediums often employ the same second medium, and so on. This aspect of media multiplexity theory explains how group members prioritize and distribute media usage, with weaker ties typically limited to using a single basic medium, while stronger ties have access to multiple channels (Haythornthwaite, 2005).
In organizational and educational contexts, this theory suggests that the strength of a tie influences the choice of media used and contributes to the establishment of group norms regarding appropriate media usage for different types of relationships (Haythornthwaite, 2005). Typically, in these settings, one or two primary mediums suffice to connect most group members, with additional channels reserved for stronger ties (Haythornthwaite, 2005).
An Example in Practice
The discussion below will address one of the primary limitations of media multiplexity, which is its status as a relatively new theory that warrants further quantitative research in domains beyond its original focus on educational and organizational contexts. Keeping this in mind, Taylor and Bazarova (2018) undertook a re-examination of media multiplexity in a different relational context – romantic relationships.
Their study involved tracking the communications of 151 college students with their partners over a six-week longitudinal study period. The findings largely supported the hypotheses of media multiplexity, even in this new context. Specifically, partners who engaged in frequent communication across multiple media platforms exhibited higher levels of relational closeness, indicating a strong tie (Taylor & Bazarova, 2018).
The straightforward nature of the theory allows individuals to apply it to their own romantic relationships, past or present, to gain insights into how media multiplexity manifests in real-life scenarios. For instance, if you communicate with your partner across various platforms and engage in frequent communication on these platforms, it’s likely that you perceive a stronger connection, feeling like an integral part of each other’s lives. Conversely, a lack of communication frequency may lead to feelings of reduced importance in the relationship.
Connections to Why We Study Communications
Studying media ecology and media multiplexity aligns with the four primary reasons for studying communication outlined in Chapter 1. Firstly, both theories offer valuable insights into how communication technologies influence our self-concept and identity formation. Media ecology explores how different communication environments shape our perceptions of ourselves and others, emphasizing the impact of various media on identity construction. This understanding helps us navigate the complexities of identity in a media-saturated world. Similarly, media multiplexity highlights the role of multiple communication channels in strengthening social ties and influencing self-perception. Using diverse media platforms to maintain relationships deepens our sense of connection and affects how we view ourselves within various social contexts.
Secondly, these theories underscore the importance of communication in civic engagement and democracy. Media ecology emphasizes the role of communication technologies in shaping public discourse and civic life, noting how different media environments can either facilitate or hinder democratic participation. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for fostering a more informed and active citizenry. Media multiplexity, on the other hand, provides insights into how the use of multiple communication channels can enhance civic engagement. By leveraging various media platforms, individuals can more effectively participate in public discourse, mobilize for social causes, and engage with political processes.
Thirdly, media ecology and media multiplexity offer essential perspectives on audience reception and interpretation. Media ecology helps us understand how different media environments influence the ways audiences receive and interpret messages, highlighting the biases and effects of each medium. This perspective is vital for analyzing media influence and audience behavior. Media multiplexity examines how the strength of social ties, facilitated by multiple communication channels, affects audience reception and interpretation. Stronger ties through diverse media use can lead to more nuanced and varied interpretations of media messages.
Finally, these theories address the crucial issue of power dynamics and social justice. Media ecology explores how dominant communication technologies shape societal power structures, revealing how media environments reinforce or challenge power dynamics and contribute to social inequalities. Media multiplexity highlights the potential for diverse media use to either reinforce or disrupt existing power dynamics within social networks. Understanding these interactions can help us address issues of inclusion and exclusion, promoting more equitable communication practices.
Limitations
Critiques have been directed towards both media ecology and media multiplexity since their inception. One of the earliest criticisms challenges technological determinism, which asserts that technology drives societal change. Instead, critics emphasize the social shaping of technology, suggesting that social interactions influence the development and use of technology (Pinch & Bijker, 1984; MacKenzie & Wajcman, 1985; Williams & Edge, 1996). This debate raises the question: does technology shape social interactions, or do social interactions shape technology? Opponents of technological determinism argue for the latter.
In the case of media ecology, McLuhan’s theories are often seen as relevant to contemporary technological influences, such as social media, despite the fact that these technologies were not available during his time (Cooper, 2020). While media ecology provides insights into modern challenges posed by new technology, critics argue that McLuhan’s lack of interest in challenging the values driving communication technology development is a notable weakness (Griffin et al., 2023). This criticism reflects the overarching concern about technological determinism.
Scholars like Innis and McLuhan are viewed as “hard” determinists, suggesting that technology directly impacts human behavior and psyche (Paragas & Lin, 2016). Others take a “soft” approach, acknowledging the social component but still viewing technology as a facilitator of change (Paragras & Lin, 2016).
In contrast, media multiplexity is a relatively new theory in communication studies and has been commended for its simplicity and testability through quantitative research (Griffin et al., 2023). However, critics have raised concerns about the theory’s coherence. While Haythornthwaite emphasizes tie strength as the driving force behind media interaction expansion within relationships, she also acknowledges the reciprocal relationship between increased communication and tie strength, leading to potential contradictions in the theory (Haythornthwaite, 2005).
Furthermore, media multiplexity’s initial focus on educational and organizational settings raises questions about its applicability to other types of relationships (Griffin et al., 2023). While research in areas like romantic relationships and social media connections has provided support for the theory, further hypothesis testing is needed to ensure its accuracy as it continues to evolve.
Summary
Technological determinism posits that advancements in technology fundamentally shape society, with McLuhan’s famous phrase “the medium is the message” encapsulating this idea. Media ecology, influenced by scholars like Innis and McLuhan, explores how communication mediums affect societal structures across different epochs, such as the tribal, literate, print, and electronic epochs. Each epoch is characterized by dominant communication technologies and corresponding cultural shifts. In contrast, media multiplexity, a relatively new theory, examines how the use of multiple communication channels influences the strength of social ties. Developed by Haythornthwaite, this theory highlights the correlation between the diversity of media channels used and the strength of interpersonal connections.
Several takeaways emerged from this chapter:
- Navigating the debates on technology’s societal impact and its true power isn’t straightforward. Understanding McLuhan’s concept of technological determinism, the tetrad, and media ecology’s exploration of historical epochs based on dominant communication technologies provides valuable insights into how technology shapes societal structures and cultural norms over time.
- Haythornthwaite’s media multiplexity theory highlights the correlation between the diversity of communication channels used and the strength of interpersonal connections. This theory offers nuanced perspectives on how technology-mediated interactions influence social relationships in various contexts.
In conclusion, by exploring concepts such as technological determinism, media ecology, and media multiplexity, we gain deeper insights into the complex interplay between technology and society. These frameworks offer valuable perspectives for navigating the ever-evolving landscape of communication and social interaction.
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