6 Feminist Theories and Intersectional Approaches (by Amanda Williams)
Introduction
Feminism is a social and political movement that advocates for the equality of the sexes and addresses issues related to women’s rights and interests. Its primary goal is to challenge and dismantle patriarchal structures that perpetuate gender inequality across various domains of life, including social, political, economic, and cultural spheres (Tong, 2001). It encompasses diverse perspectives and approaches, from liberal feminism, which emphasizes legal and political reform to achieve gender equality, to radical feminism, which seeks fundamental societal change by addressing the root causes of gender oppression (Tong, 2001). Feminism’s diverse approaches reflect its commitment to tackling the complexities of gender inequality and working towards a more equitable and just society for all genders.
This chapter draws on three theories and concepts that have significantly impacted the feminist communication theory landscape: standpoint theory, muted group and intersectionality.
Feminist standpoint theory asserts that collective identities and critical consciousness are achieved through political struggle. Drawing from Marxist thought and social justice projects, it emphasizes the experiences of marginalized individuals and the impact of social positioning on knowledge creation. It also questions the role of objectivity in knowledge production.
Muted group theory examines how dominant groups control communication, silencing marginalized voices through gatekeeping and malestreaming. Efforts like feminist dictionaries aim to challenge oppressive language and amplify marginalized voices, promoting inclusivity in communication and society.
The concept of intersectionality increases our understanding of power and identity by highlighting the power of social categories such as gender, race, and class in meditating experiences. It sheds light on the complex dynamics of oppression through structural, representational, and political dimensions, and guides efforts toward more inclusive and equitable outcomes for all individuals.
Understanding feminist theories and concepts like standpoint, muted group, and intersectionality is crucial because they reveal how marginalized voices are silenced in everyday life and the media, challenge dominant narratives, and provide insights into intersecting forms of oppression, ultimately guiding us toward a more equitable and inclusive society for all.
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to
- Recognize the significance of feminist communication theory’s evolution, incorporating standpoint, muted group theory, and intersectional approaches.
- Analyze contemporary examples using standpoint, muted group theory, and intersectionality.
- Identify the limitations associated with standpoint, muted group theory, and intersectionality.
History and Key Thinkers
Feminist theories have significantly shaped communication theory, offering alternative perspectives on power, identity, and discourse.
Feminist standpoint theory, rooted in Marxist thought and late-twentieth-century social justice projects, emerged in the 1970s and 1980s. Scholars like Dorothy Smith, known for institutional ethnography, Sandra Harding, who critiques knowledge production, and Donna Haraway, focusing on cyborg theory, advocate for starting scientific inquiry from women’s lived experiences (Smith, 1987, 2002, 2005; Harding, 1986, 1991, 2004; Haraway, 1988, 1991). They emphasize feminist analyses and critiques of the connections between material experience and power, exploring how power relations influence knowledge production.
The work of feminist standpoint scholars challenges several assumptions about knowledge. Firstly, it rejects the idea that politics inherently undermines knowledge production. Secondly, it suggests that mainstream sciences, methods, and epistemologies do not provide neutral, objective knowledge because all knowledge creation is influenced by historical context and social positionality. Finally, it aims to develop knowledge that fosters an oppositional consciousness among oppressed groups (Harding, 2004; Bowell, n.d.).
Muted group theory (MGT), initially developed by Edwin Ardener and Shirley Ardener in the mid-1970s, addresses the silencing of women’s voices in anthropological studies (Ardener, 1975). Cheris Kramarae’s work (1981) situates MGT within communications, shedding light on power dynamics in speech, writing, and language overall. She argues that language practices, largely shaped by men, silence women, and seeks to challenge this experience.
Intersectionality, articulated by Kimberlé Williams Crenshaw in the late 1980s and 1990s, further elaborates our understanding of power and identity by highlighting the intersecting nature of social categories such as gender, race, and class (Crenshaw, 1989, 1991). Crenshaw underscores the need to consider how multiple forms of oppression intersect and compound, shaping individuals’ experiences and opportunities for communication.
In summary, feminist insights have broadened the scope of communication theory, challenging traditional paradigms and offering new frameworks for understanding the complexities of human interaction. By magnifying marginalized voices, acknowledging power differentials, and recognizing the intersecting nature of social identities, feminist communication theory contributes to a more inclusive and equitable understanding of communication dynamics.
Foundational Concepts
Each of these theories has some key concepts of note, outlined below.
Standpoint Theory
Standpoint
The concept of a standpoint in feminist standpoint theories is rooted in Marxist theory, denoting an achieved collective identity or consciousness (Bower, n.d.). Unlike a mere perspective determined by one’s socio-historical position, a standpoint is earned through collective political struggle.
While both dominant and dominated groups occupy perspectives, the dominated are better positioned to achieve a standpoint. However, non-marginalized individuals can contribute to reaching a shared critical consciousness about power structures. Each person’s unique experiences and social relations can lead to different consciousnesses and standpoints (Bower, n.d.).
An Example in Practice
Consider a workplace where women consistently face discrimination in promotions and are often sidelined in decision-making processes. From their marginalized position, they recognize patterns of sexism and unequal treatment that their male colleagues may not fully understand or acknowledge.
While both men and women in the workplace may observe these dynamics, women’s lived experiences of discrimination and marginalization give them a deeper understanding, or standpoint, on the issue. Through collective political struggle, such as advocating for equal opportunities and fair treatment, women in the workplace can work towards achieving a standpoint that challenges and addresses these power imbalances.
Nonetheless, even non-marginalized individuals, such as supportive male colleagues or HR professionals, can contribute to the collective effort by recognizing and amplifying women’s voices and advocating for change. Through these actions, they also contribute to the development of a shared critical consciousness about power structures in the workplace.
Situated Knowledge Thesis
The situated knowledge thesis asserts that knowledge creation is influenced by social factors such as historical context and socio-cultural environments (Haraway, 1991). This means that individuals who produce knowledge are always situated within specific social conditions, which shape their perspectives and understanding of the world. In other words, knowledge is not universal or objective but is instead shaped by the particular circumstances in which it is produced. This perspective challenges the idea of knowledge as something independent of social context and emphasizes the importance of considering the social positioning of knowers when interpreting and evaluating knowledge claims, especially when it comes to research. It also encourages researchers to think about their own positionality.
An Example in Practice
An example illustrating the feminist situated knowledge thesis can be found within the field of medical research. Historically, medical knowledge has been predominantly shaped by male perspectives, resulting in biased understandings of health and disease that often overlook or misrepresent women’s experiences. For instance, heart disease, long considered a predominantly male issue, led to the oversight or misdiagnosis of symptoms in women due to research predominantly on men, resulting in poorer health outcomes for them. Feminist scholars and activists have challenged this male-centric perspective by advocating for research that considers the unique biological and social factors that affect women’s health. They argue that knowledge about health and disease must be situated within the social context of gender inequality and discrimination. By emphasizing the importance of considering the social positioning of knowers, feminist perspectives on medical research have led to a more comprehensive understanding of health issues that affect women. This shift in perspective has contributed to developing more gender-inclusive healthcare practices, ensuring that women’s health needs are more adequately addressed.
Inversion Thesis
Also known as the thesis of epistemic advantage, the inversion thesis grants authority to marginalized individuals first because they often possess deeper insights than those benefiting from oppression. In simple terms, social disenfranchisement leads to epistemic privilege (Wylie, 2013). This idea is supported by the fact that those benefiting from systemic oppression have little incentive to question underlying assumptions, whereas marginalized individuals have firsthand knowledge of the structure and effects of systems like capitalism due to their lived experiences.
An Example in Practice
In the TV series The Handmaid’s Tale, based on Margaret Atwood’s novel, the inversion thesis is exemplified in the dystopian world of Gilead. Here, women are oppressed and stripped of their rights, forced into subservient roles dictated by the ruling class of men.
Characters like Offred, the protagonist, and other marginalized women in Gilead embody the inversion thesis. Despite their oppressed status, these women possess deep insights into the workings of the oppressive regime. Through their lived experiences, they understand the intricacies of Gilead’s power structures, the ways in which they are controlled and exploited, and the existence of hidden resistance movements.
Offred’s narration provides a firsthand account of the systemic oppression and the day-to-day struggles faced by women in Gilead. Her perspective, shaped by her experiences as a handmaid, offers valuable insights into the oppressive regime that would not be apparent to those benefiting from the system
Strong objectivity
Strong objectivity, as defined by Harding (1995), redefines traditional ideas of objectivity in research, particularly within feminist standpoint theory. Harding argues that starting research from women’s lives actually enhances objectivity, contrasting with the “weak objectivity” of supposedly value-neutral research. Strong objectivity acknowledges and amplifies researcher bias, which Harding suggests can never be entirely eliminated. A researcher’s life experiences unavoidably shape their perspective and consequently their research.
From a feminist standpoint, questions about objectivity revolve around which knowledge projects are considered objective and why, whether objectivity is necessary, and if achieving it is even possible. These concerns stem from worries about sexism in scientific studies. Harding’s concept challenges the notion of neutrality in research, proposing that researcher reflexivity, or awareness of their own positionality, leads to a “stronger” objectivity. In this view, researchers cannot be completely neutral; their biases must be acknowledged and accounted for in their work.
An Example in Practice
An example of gender bias in research can be seen in studies on workplace leadership. Traditionally, leadership qualities and behaviours have been defined based on male experiences and traits, such as assertiveness and competitiveness. As a result, research on leadership often focuses on male-dominated industries and overlooks the unique challenges and strengths of women in leadership roles.
When researchers start from the perspective of women’s lives, as advocated by Harding’s concept of strong objectivity, they can uncover important insights into effective leadership that may not be apparent when using a male-centric approach. For instance, research that considers the experiences of women leaders may highlight the value of collaborative and inclusive leadership styles, which are often undervalued in traditional leadership models.
By acknowledging and addressing gender bias, researchers can strive for a stronger objectivity that incorporates diverse perspectives and provides a more comprehensive understanding of complex issues like leadership.
Muted Group Theory
Mutedness
Mutedness refers to the struggle of individuals from subordinate groups to freely express their thoughts without conforming to the dominant group’s language, leading to feelings of being overlooked, muffled, and invisible. Kramarae (1981) emphasizes that social interaction shapes language, and since it has been primarily constructed by men, they have an advantage over women. Mutedness does not mean the absence of voice but rather a distortion where subordinate voices are allowed to speak only within the confines of the dominant communication system.
Kramarae (2005) has experimented with alternative terms for “muted” due to student confusion with this term. Some of the alternatives she considered were:
- Muffling action theory: Implies deadening sounds or making things obscure, but sounds too much like car repair jargon.
- Hushing theory: Suggests quieting, but seems too associated with libraries.
- Voiced-over theory: Implies being covered up, but might be misunderstood as the theory being voiced over.
- Smothered voices theory: Conveys the idea of voices being concealed, suppressed, or extinguished, but could evoke culinary imagery.
- Stifled group theory: Suggests being interrupted, cut off, or limited by the exercise of power or control.
As you can see all of these “playful” alternatives highlight the idea of marginalized groups being silenced or suppressed within dominant communication systems no matter what you call it (Kramarae, 2005).
An Example in Practice
In the TV series The Office, the character Pam Beesly represents mutedness in the workplace. Pam often struggles to express her ideas and ambitions freely, feeling overlooked and invisible within the dominant communication system of Dunder Mifflin. Despite her creative talents, she is often confined to her role as a receptionist and faces challenges in being taken seriously by her male colleagues, particularly her boss Michael Scott. Pam’s journey throughout the series reflects the challenges faced by individuals from subordinate groups who struggle to assert themselves and break free from societal expectations, highlighting the concept of mutedness in a relatable and recognizable pop culture example.
Dominant and Muted Groups
The dominant group refers to the social group that holds the most power and influence within a given society or culture, often setting the norms, values, and expectations that shape communication and social interaction (Arderner, 1975).
For example, in a patriarchal society, men are typically considered the dominant group, while women are often marginalized or muted. Similarly, in many Western societies, white individuals are the dominant group, with people of colour facing marginalization and silencing.
In muted group theory, the dominant group is not limited to one specific demographic but can vary depending on context, including factors such as gender, race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and other forms of social identity.
The muted group, relative to the dominant group, refers to marginalized groups that may silence themselves without coercion, a shared social phenomenon based on the tacit understanding of dominant and non-dominant groups within society. This process presupposes a collective understanding of power dynamics, resulting in “oppressor” and “the oppressed” groups (Kramarae, 2005). Muted groups lack a recognized public vocabulary to express their experiences, leading to doubts about the validity of their feelings and experiences. Factors such as gender, race, and class hierarchies are supported by various societal systems, keeping muted groups at the margins of society (Kramarae, 2005).
An Example in Practice
In workplace dynamics, an example of the muted group can be observed in corporate boardrooms where there is a lack of diversity among the leadership, with the majority of executives being white males. In this scenario
- The dominant group consists of white males who hold positions of power and influence within the organization.
- The muted group includes women, people of colour, and other marginalized individuals who may feel compelled to silence themselves to conform to the communication norms established by the dominant group.
- These individuals may self-silence out of fear of backlash, discrimination, or dismissal of their ideas.
- The silencing of the muted group is reinforced by the tacit understanding within the organization that the voices and perspectives of the dominant group are prioritized and valued over those of marginalized individuals.
- This dynamic perpetuates the power imbalance between the oppressor (dominant group) and the oppressed (muted group), keeping marginalized individuals at the margins of decision-making and leadership within the organization.
- The lack of a recognized public vocabulary for expressing their experiences further compounds the issue, leading to doubts about the validity of their contributions and feelings of invisibility or marginalization.
In this way, the concept of the muted group manifests in real-world scenarios, where power dynamics and societal systems contribute to the silencing of marginalized voices in the workplace.
Gatekeeping as Malestreaming
In muted group theory, men often serve as the gatekeepers of communication, controlling what is considered acceptable or important to communicate. Even if there were a rich vocabulary within the public mode of expression to describe feminine experiences, women would still be muted if their modes of expression were disregarded or mocked. Kramarae highlights that both legal structures and social etiquette conventions have historically favoured men. She observes that most gatekeepers, belonging to a “good ole boys” cultural establishment, are men who have historically excluded women’s contributions in art, poetry, plays, film scripts, public address, and scholarly essays (Kramarae, 2005). Therefore, mainstream communication largely reflects a “malestream” expression (Griffin, Leadbetter & Sparks, 2023).
An Example in Practice
In her recent work, Enguix (2023) argues that mansplaining, manspreading, and gaslighting are manifestations of malestream communication, where male perspectives dominate discourse and shape societal norms. In malestream communication, men’s voices and experiences are prioritized, while women’s voices are often marginalized or dismissed.
For example, mansplaining reflects the assumption that men are authoritative and knowledgeable, while women are seen as less competent or informed. Similarly, manspreading reflects the entitlement of men to physical space, relegating women to smaller, more confined areas. Gaslighting is specific practice that seeks to undermines a women’s perceptions and experiences, reinforcing the dominance of male perspectives.
Enguix (2023) connects these practices to broader issues of structural sexism, where traits associated with femininity are devalued compared to those associated with masculinity. For instance, during the 2020 US vice-presidential debate, Mike Pence repeatedly interrupted Kamala Harris, prompting her to assert herself with the phrase “I’m speaking,” which went viral on social media. Pence tried to mansplain and Harris sought strategies to circumvent these efforts.
While the media play a crucial role in condemning these practices and generating public debate, academic reflections on these topics remain limited. Enguix (2023) underscores the importance of recognizing and addressing these issues for achieving gender equality and improving overall well-being.
Power over language and feminist dictionaries
The ultimate goal of muted group theory is to challenge and change the linguistic system that oppresses women, including challenging sexist dictionaries. This has been linked to initiatives such as rewriting “history” to “herstory” (Griffin et al., 2023).
Traditional dictionaries, often seen as authoritative guides to language use, systematically exclude words coined by women, relying instead on male literary sources. Kramarae and Treichler (1985) addressed this by compiling a feminist dictionary that provides definitions for women’s words not found in dictionaries like Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary. Their dictionary also offers alternative feminine readings of words included in traditional dictionaries, presenting a more inclusive perspective.
Russell (2012) outlines many other efforts to challenge these biases, noting a rich history of such initiatives from 1970 to 2006.
For example, here is a small excerpt adapted from Kramarae and Treichler (1985):
SILENCE
Is not golden.
(See CONVERSATION, INEXPRESSIVE MALE, OPPRESSION, SPEAKING, SUPPRESSION OF WOMEN’S WRITING.)
Russell (2012) notes that this definition of silence occupies more than one entire page of A Feminist Dictionary. This definition continues beyond this excerpt to explore class-related silences, presenting eleven different defining quotations from various sources including poets, novelists, musicians, activists, academics, and even penitentiary policy manuals (Russell, 2012, p. 25).
Other definitions from Kramarae and Treichler’s (1985) work include:
CUCKOLD
The husband of an unfaithful wife. The wife of an unfaithful husband is just called wife. (as cited in Russell, 2012, p. 19).
FAMILY MAN
Refers to a man who shows more concern with other members of the family than is normal. There is no label family woman, since that would be heard as a redundancy. (as cited in Russell, 2012, p. 19)
An Example in Practice
The effort to redefine language and challenge problematic dictionary words continues today, driven by the need for more inclusive and respectful representations. For instance, Maria Beatrice Giovanardi launched a petition aimed at transforming the “Oxford Dictionary’s Sexist Definition of ‘Woman’” (Change.org, 2019).
The petition, which has garnered almost 35,000 signatures, highlights the problematic nature of the dictionary’s definitions, which include derogatory terms such as ”b***h, besom, piece, bit, mare, baggage, wench, petticoat, frail, bird, bint, biddy, filly” as synonyms for ”woman.” It calls for the removal of these derogatory terms and urges the dictionary to adopt more respectful and accurate definitions (Change.org, 2019).
This petition triggered the Oxford Dictionary to update its definition of woman and other words in 2020 (Walawalkar, 2020), demonstrating the impact of advocacy and activism in challenging language biases and promoting gender equality.
Intersectional Feminist Theory
Another approach to understanding the perspective of women beyond muted group comes from the Black Feminist movement and the work of Crenshaw.
Black Feminism
Crenshaw’s (1989) concept of intersectionality has become a central theme in national discussions on racial justice, identity politics, and policing, and has also influenced legal debates.
Her work is firmly rooted in Black feminism, which diverges from mainstream feminism by prioritizing an understanding of the unique injustices faced by Black women in their daily lives. Black feminism, as conceptualized by scholars like Crenshaw (1989, 1991), emphasizes intersectionality, examining how various forms of discrimination, such as institutional racism, classism, and sexism, intersect and amplify to shape the experiences of Black women.
An Example in Practice
Black feminist voices are increasingly being amplified in literature, music, film, and art. Writers, musicians, filmmakers, and visual artists often use their platforms to depict the realities of Black women’s lives, challenge stereotypes, and celebrate Black womanhood. This is especially common in the United States because women in this country have often felt unheard and unseen.
One specific example of Black feminist voices being amplified in literature is the work of author and activist Audre Lorde. Lorde’s poetry and essays, such as “The Cancer Journals” and “Zami: A New Spelling of My Name,” explore themes of race, gender, sexuality, and identity from a Black feminist perspective. Through her writing, Lorde challenges societal norms and empowers Black women to embrace their complexities and assert their agency.
In music, artists like Beyoncé have used their platforms to promote Black feminism. Beyoncé’s album “Lemonade,” for instance, is a visual and musical masterpiece that addresses themes of infidelity, resilience, and empowerment, with a focus on the experiences of Black women. The album’s accompanying visual album features imagery that celebrates Black culture and womanhood while challenging stereotypes and advocating for social justice.
In film, directors like Ava DuVernay have made significant contributions to amplifying Black feminist voices. For example, DuVernay’s film Selma chronicles the historic 1965 Selma to Montgomery voting rights marches led by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., highlighting the crucial role of women like Amelia Boynton Robinson and Diane Nash in the civil rights movement. Through her storytelling, DuVernay emphasizes the intersectionality of race and gender in the struggle for equality.
Visual artists like Kara Walker also use their work to challenge stereotypes and celebrate Black womanhood. Walker’s provocative silhouettes and installations confront viewers with the complexities of race, gender, and power dynamics in American history. Her art often explores themes of slavery, sexuality, and identity, inviting viewers to reconsider their understanding of Black women’s experiences.
These examples demonstrate how Black feminist voices are not only present but thriving in various forms of artistic expression, contributing to broader conversations about identity, representation, and social change.
The Dynamics of Intersectionality
According to Crenshaw (1991), three aspects of intersectionality—structural, political, and representational—work together to shape the visibility and experiences of non-white women within society. By understanding and addressing these intersecting forms of oppression, advocates can work towards more inclusive and equitable outcomes for all individuals, regardless of their race or gender.
Structural Intersectionality
Structural Intersectionality explores how marginalized groups experience forms of social oppression differently due to the intersection of multiple social identities including race, gender, and class (Crenshaw, 1991). More specifically, it examines how various intersecting social structures contribute to disparities in areas like employment, education, healthcare, and housing.
An Example in Practice
An example of structural intersectionality in practice can be observed in the experiences of non-white women seeking support and resources to escape domestic violence.
When a non-white woman experiences domestic violence, she may face additional barriers compared to a white woman due to the intersection of race, gender, and class. For instance, she may encounter language barriers if English is not her first language, making it difficult to communicate with service providers or access information about available resources.
Moreover, systemic racism and economic inequality may limit her access to safe housing, financial assistance, and legal support. Discrimination and bias within social service systems may also affect how her case is handled, potentially leading to inadequate support or disbelief of her experiences.
Additionally, cultural factors may play a role in her decision-making process, such as fear of deportation, fear of repercussions within her community, or cultural norms that discourage seeking help outside the family unit.
In contrast, a white woman facing domestic violence may have more access to resources and support services due to her racial privilege. She may not encounter the same level of discrimination or barriers when seeking help.
This example illustrates how structural intersectionality affects the experiences of non-white women facing domestic violence, highlighting the complex ways in which race, gender, and class intersect to shape their access to support and resources. It underscores the importance of addressing systemic inequalities and providing culturally competent services to meet the diverse needs of all survivors.
Political Intersectionality
Political intersectionality examines how laws and policies intended to promote equality may inadvertently perpetuate inequalities for non-white women. Crenshaw’s (1991) work reveals that legal frameworks often fail to adequately address the specific needs and experiences of marginalized groups, leading to further marginalization.
An Example in Practice
An example of political intersectionality in Canada can be seen in immigration and refugee policies.
Canada’s immigration sponsorship program, for instance, requires sponsors to meet financial eligibility criteria to support their sponsored family members. However, these criteria may disadvantage non-white women from low-income backgrounds.
Non-white women, especially those from marginalized communities, often face systemic barriers to employment and financial stability. This can make it difficult for them to meet sponsorship requirements and reunite with their families in Canada.
Additionally, non-white women immigrants and refugees may experience gender-based violence, but immigration policies may not adequately address their protection needs or provide sufficient support services.
In summary, political intersectionality shows how immigration policies can inadvertently perpetuate inequalities for non-white women by not addressing the specific challenges they face due to race, gender, and class.
Representational Intersectionality
Representational intersectionality highlights the importance of diverse and accurate portrayals of women of colour by challenging stereotypes and promoting understanding (Crenshaw, 1991).This concept explores how representations of non-white women in media and popular culture can distort or erase their authentic lived experiences.
An Example in Practice
Collins’ (1991) examination of stereotypes such as the Mammy, Matriarch, Welfare Queen, Black Lady, and Jezebel illustrates how representations of non-white women in media and popular culture can distort or erase their authentic lived experiences. These images perpetuate harmful stereotypes and limit the opportunities and agency of non-white women.
By categorizing these controlling images, Collins (1991) demonstrates how they intersect with various aspects of identity, including race, gender, and class. For example, the Mammy stereotype portrays Black women as nurturing caregivers to white families, erasing their individuality and complexity by reducing them to subservient roles. This representation intersects with issues of race and gender, reinforcing stereotypes of Black women as inherently submissive and self-sacrificing.
Similarly, the Jezebel stereotype portrays Black women as hypersexual and promiscuous, erasing their humanity and perpetuating harmful ideas about their sexuality. This representation intersects with issues of race, gender, and sexuality, contributing to the marginalization and objectification of Black women in society.
Collins’ (1991) work highlights the importance of diverse and accurate portrayals of women of colour in challenging stereotypes and promoting understanding. By critically examining these controlling images and their intersections with various aspects of identity, Collins encourages readers to dismantle systems of oppression and advocate for more authentic representations of non-white women in media and popular culture.
In this way, Collins’ work serves as an example of representational intersectionality in practice, as it demonstrates how representations of non-white women in media and popular culture intersect with multiple forms of oppression and shape societal perceptions.
Connections to Why We Study Communications
Going back to Chapter 1, understanding communication theories such as standpoint theory, muted group theory (MGT), and intersectionality can provide valuable insights into the four reasons why studying communication is essential.
Firstly, communication theories like standpoint theory, MGT, and intersectionality explore how communication shapes our identity and relationships, emphasizing the importance of considering marginalized perspectives, the suppression of voices, particularly women, and the intersecting nature of social categories such as gender, race, and class. By understanding these theories, we gain insights into the intricate connection between communication, identity formation, and representation and how communication dynamics intersect with systems of oppression.
Secondly, theories like standpoint, MGT, and intersectionality emphasize the role of communication in challenging power dynamics and promoting social justice. They analyze communication structures developed by dominant groups and the ways various forms of oppression intersect to shape individuals’ experiences, particularly those of non-white women. By recognizing these intersections, we gain insights into the complex dynamics of discrimination and can develop more effective strategies for creating a fairer and more just society for all.
Thirdly, communication serves as a lens through which we understand the relationship between the audience and the producer, with theories like standpoint, muted group, and intersectionality highlighting the active potential of audiences in interpreting and responding to media messages. These theories shed light on how media representations shape audience perceptions and behaviours and how intersecting social categories influence audience responses.
Finally, discourse shapes what we talk about and how we express ideas, influencing our thoughts and actions. Theories like standpoint, muted group, and intersectionality further complicate our understanding of power and identity by highlighting the intersecting nature of social categories such as gender, race, and class. By studying these theories, we gain insights into how power dynamics perpetuate privilege and marginalization in society, and how discourse can challenge dominant narratives and promote social change.
In conclusion, studying communication theories such as standpoint theory, muted group theory, intersectionality, and discourse analysis, enhances our ability to understand and navigate the complexities of our media world. These theories provide valuable frameworks for analyzing communication dynamics, challenging power imbalances, and promoting social justice and equity.
Limitations
Standpoint theory, MGT, and intersectionality theory have been pivotal frameworks in understanding social identities and oppression. However, each has faced critiques that call into question their effectiveness and applicability. This section explores the main criticisms of these theories, highlighting the need for a more nuanced understanding of identity and oppression.
Critics of standpoint theory raise two main issues: essentialism and automatic epistemic privilege (Wiley, 2012). Some argue that standpoint theory oversimplifies by assuming that all members of a group share the same essential attributes and experiences. This can reinforce rigid categories and overlook the diversity within those groups. Additionally, the theory implies that just being part of a marginalized group automatically grants special knowledge or understanding, ignoring the fact that individuals within these groups have diverse experiences and perspectives. These critiques urge for a more nuanced approach that acknowledges the complexity of social identities and the diversity of experiences within marginalized communities (Wiley, 2012).
Finally, intersectionality theory has faced several critiques (Nash, 2008). First, some note that there’s the absence of a clear and standardized methodology for its application (Nash, 2008). This lack of a defined intersectional methodology has led to inconsistencies and challenges in its application across different disciplines and contexts. Secondly, there’s the tendency to focus predominantly on Black women as quintessential intersectional subjects, overshadowing the experiences of other marginalized groups and limiting the understanding of intersectionality’s broader applicability.(Nash, 2008). Another critique revolves around the vague definition of the concept itself, making it difficult to operationalize and apply in research (Nash, 2008). Finally, questions have been raised about its empirical validity, with critics suggesting that intersectionality lacks robust evidence to support its claims about the interlocking nature of oppression (Nash, 2008). Despite these limits, the aim is not to undermine intersectionality but rather to encourage scholars to engage critically with its theoretical, political, and methodological complexities, ultimately leading to more effective strategies for social change.
The limitations noted above highlight the need for theorists and researchers to critically examine and refine these frameworks to better address the complexities of identity and oppression. By acknowledging and addressing these criticisms, scholars can develop more nuanced theories that better reflect the diversity of experiences within marginalized communities and pave the way for more effective strategies for social change.
Summary
This chapter delves into key feminist theories such as standpoint theory, muted group theory, and intersectionality, each offering unique perspectives on power, communication, and oppression.
Some key takeaways from this chapter include:
- Feminist standpoint theory, rooted in Marxist thought and social justice projects of the 1970s and 1980s. asserts that collective identities and critical consciousness are achieved through political struggle. Drawing from the inversion thesis (epistemic authority of marginalized individuals), strong objectivity (acknowledgment of researcher bias), and situated knowledge (influence of social factors on knowledge creation), it highlights the deeper insights of marginalized voices and the impact of social positioning on knowledge. By doing so, it promotes a more inclusive understanding of power structures and challenges dominant narratives.
- Developed in the mid-1970s, muted group theory examines how dominant groups control communication, silencing marginalized voices through gatekeeping and malestreaming. Mutedness, experienced by marginalized individuals, results from being overlooked within these systems. Efforts like feminist dictionaries aim to challenge oppressive language and amplify marginalized voices, promoting inclusivity in communication and society.
- Introduced by Crenshaw in the 1980s, intersectionality complicates our understanding of power and identity by highlighting the intersecting nature of social categories such as gender, race, and class. It examines how various forms of oppression intersect to shape individuals’ experiences, particularly those of non-white women. Intersectionality challenges mainstream feminism by highlighting the complexity of discrimination. Structural intersectionality explores how race, gender, and class intersect to shape experiences like domestic violence, while political intersectionality examines how laws and policies perpetuate inequalities. Representational intersectionality critiques media portrayals that distort or erase non-white women’s experiences, emphasizing the importance of accurate representations. Understanding intersectionality matters because it sheds light on the complex dynamics of oppression and guides efforts toward more inclusive and equitable outcomes for all individuals.
Understanding feminist theories like standpoint theory, muted group theory, and intersectionality is crucial as these approaches illuminate power dynamics, communication barriers, and intersecting forms of oppression. This knowledge guides efforts towards creating more inclusive and equitable spaces, hopefully challenging dominant narratives and promoting social change.
References
Ardener, E. (1975). Belief and the problem of women, pp. 1–17 in S. Ardener (ed.) Perceiving women. London: Malaby Press.
Bowell, T. (n.d.). Feminist standpoint theory. The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://iep.utm.edu/fem-stan/
Change.org. (2019, June 27). Change Oxford dictionary’s sexist definition of “woman.” https://www.change.org/p/change-oxford-dictionary-s-sexist-definition-of-woman/u/28075346Started by Maria Beatrice Giovanardi.
Collins, P. H. (1991). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. Routledge.
Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. In University of Chicago Legal Forum: 1989 (1), pp. 139–167). https://philpapers.org/archive/CREDTI.pdf
Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of colour. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241–1299.
Enguix Grau, B. (2023). Men know, women listen: Mansplaining, manspreading and other malestream stories. In J. Mercer & M. McGlashan (Eds.), Toxic masculinity: men, meaning, and digital media (Chapter 8). Routledge.
Haraway, D. J. (1988). Situated knowledges: The science question in feminism and the privilege of partial perspective. Feminist Studies, 14(3), 575–599.
Haraway, D. J. (1991). Simians, cyborgs, and women: The reinvention of nature. Routledge.
Harding, S. (1986). The science question in feminism. Cornell University Press.
Harding, S. (1991). Whose science? Whose knowledge?: Thinking from women’s lives. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.
Harding, S. (1995). “Strong objectivity”: A response to the new objectivity question. Synthese, 104, 331–349.
Harding, S. (1998). Is science multicultural?: Postcolonialisms, feminisms, and epistemologies. Indiana University Press.
Harding, S. (2004). The feminist standpoint theory reader: Intellectual and political controversies. Routledge.
Jacobson, S. W., & Aaltio-Marjosola, I. (2001). A cross-cultural exploration of the experiences of two groups of women managers: Linking rich understanding of the subjective expressions of local inhabitants of a national culture and organization with concrete historical, political, and economic structures. Feminist Theory, 2(3), 293–311.
Kramarae, C. (1981). Women and men speaking: Frameworks for analysis. Communication Quarterly, 29(1), 6–16.
Kramarae, C. (2005). Muted group theory and communication: Asking dangerous questions. Women and language, 28(2), 55–61.
Kramarae, C. (2009). Muted group theory. In S. W. Littlejohn & K. A. Foss (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Communication Theory (pp. 667–669). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412959384
Kramarae, C., & Treichler, P.A. (1985). A feminist dictionary. London: Pandora Press.
Nash, J. C. (2008). Re-thinking intersectionality. Feminist Review, 89(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1057/fr.2008.4
Russell, L. R. (2012). This is what a dictionary looks like: The lexicographical contributions of feminist dictionaries. International Journal of Lexicography, 25(1), 1–29.
Smith, D. E. (1987). The everyday world as problematic: A feminist sociology. University of Toronto Press.
Smith, D. E. (2002). Texts, facts and femininity: Exploring the relations of ruling. Routledge.
Smith, D. E. (2005). Institutional ethnography: A sociology for people. Rowman Altamira.
Tong, R. (2001). Feminist theory. In International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral Sciences (pp. 5484–5491). https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-08-043076-7/03945-0
Walawalkar, A. (2020, November 7). Oxford dictionaries amends ‘sexist’ definitions of the word ‘woman’. The Guardian. https://theguardian.com/books/2020/nov/07/oxford-university-press-updates-definitions-word-woman
Wylie, A. (2013). Why standpoint matters. In Science and other cultures (pp. 26–48). Routledge.