11 Media Decolonization and Dewesternization (by Kyle Napier)

Introduction

Across global discourses, decolonization and dewesternization arise as interconnected reactions to colonialism and Western hegemony, reshaping socio- cultural and epistemological paradigms. Within communication studies, the interplay between decolonization and dewesternization prompts scrutiny of how communication perpetuates colonial hierarchies, and how movements touting inclusion and diversity may still not foster equitable knowledge exchange with Indigenous communities.

Colonization involves establishing colonies or seizing territory by force, and has historically been supported by the media of colonizing nations. Westernization specifically refers to global cultural shifts towards Western Eurocentrism, propagated and perpetuated by media but internalized by individuals through societal influence (Kagitcibasi, 2005).

The impacts of colonization are widespread but vary across Indigenous communities and societies. Dissent from Indigenous Peoples against colonization and Westernization has existed since their earliest encounters, although decolonial and dewesternizing perspectives have not historically been widely published (Battiste, 2002).

Indigenous communities maintain historic communication methods in diverse ways. Simultaneously, colonization continually threatens Indigenous languages and lands (Toth, 2022). Because of colonial land theft and resource extraction, many Indigenous communities further face economic hardships (Leonard, Parker, & Anderson, 2020). All have faced colonization, though not necessarily Westernization.

The Westernization of media on this continent involves replacing Indigenous communications with methods developed and popularized through Western Eurocentrism. Print, radio, broadcast, internet, and social media have historically supported colonization and accelerated Westernization. Today, media continues to play a role in neocolonization, wherein another society or culture’s resources, labour, media, consumerism, capital, and cheap labour are exploited (Clark, 2014 ; Glück, 2018).

However, alongside colonial media narratives, there have always been decolonial media narratives. Decolonization involves rejecting and dismantling colonial systems, structures, paradigms, ideologies, and institutions (Na’puti, 2020). Dewesternization actively opposes Western European influences on culture, challenging the systems, structures, paradigms, ideologies, and institutions that perpetuate them  (Na’puti, 2020).

Understanding the dynamics of decolonization and dewesternization in communication studies is crucial for several reasons. Firstly, it sheds light on historical injustices perpetuated by colonization and Westernization, fostering understanding towards Indigenous communities. Secondly, it offers insights into contemporary issues, such as cultural preservation and representation, informing more inclusive and equitable communication practices. Moreover, by challenging dominant narratives and advocating for decolonial and dewesternizing perspectives, we contribute to the ongoing fight against systemic inequalities and cultural hegemony. Ultimately, caring about these issues is essential for fostering a more just and inclusive society, where diverse voices are valued and respected.

Learning Outcomes

History of Decolonization and Dewesternization in Media

Each nation, society, and individual experiences colonization and Westernization differently, while decolonial and dewesternizing movements are uniquely experienced with independent circumstances. However, access to such counter-colonial opinions is limited by a global publishing bias (Battiste, 2002), resulting in the underrepresentation of decolonial and dewesternizing voices in Western media.

This matters because the limited access to counter-colonial opinions perpetuates a one-sided narrative, which reinforces existing power structures and marginalizes alternative perspectives. When decolonial and dewesternizing voices are underrepresented in Western media due to global publishing biases (Battiste, 2002), it hampers the ability of societies to fully understand and appreciate the diverse experiences and histories of colonized peoples. This lack of representation not only stifles intellectual diversity and critical discourse but also excludes voices, further preventing the rectification of historical injustices. Ensuring a more inclusive media landscape is essential for fostering mutual understanding, promoting and supporting the ongoing efforts to decolonize knowledge governance and society.

Colonization and Westernization: Global Forces

Colonization and Westernization are global forces predicated upon the subjugation of Indigenous Peoples and their lands. Despite thousands of distinct Indigenous societies and communities globally, are each uniquely impacted by colonization and Westernization. These forces assert the domination of worldview and belief systems by one society, replacing thousands of diverse perspectives with one. While colonization has been statutorily enabled through papal doctrine and colonial legislation, Westernization is perpetuated through the media (Clark, 2014).

The Four Great Inventions in China, and its role in Eurowesternization

The Four Great Inventions in China, including the compass, paper, the printing press, and gunpowder, are widely recognized for their profound impact on human history (Ji, Lee, & Guo, 2010). These inventions revolutionized communication, warfare, and knowledge dissemination, shaping the course of civilizations around the world. While originating in China, these innovations played a crucial role in facilitating Western European colonization, expansion, and imperialism.

The compass, invented in China during the Han Dynasty around the 2nd century BCE, revolutionized navigation. Originally used for divination, it became crucial for maritime exploration during the Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE). This invention allowed sailors to determine direction accurately, even without visible landmarks, significantly advancing global trade and exploration. The compass laid the foundation for the Age of Exploration and transformed the world’s understanding of geography (Ji, Lee, & Guo, 2010).

Paper, invented in China during the Han Dynasty around the  2nd century CE (Cartwright, 2017), revolutionized the way information was recorded and disseminated. Its lightweight, durable, and inexpensive nature made it an invaluable tool for documenting knowledge, preserving cultural heritage, and facilitating communication over long distances (Peter, 2014). With the spread of papermaking technology along the Silk Road, this invention reached Europe by the 11th century, which it significantly contributed to the proliferation of written texts and the development of literacy.

The printing press, attributed to Johannes Gutenberg in 15th-century Germany, built upon the foundation laid by Chinese woodblock printing techniques. Gutenberg’s invention enabled the mass production of books and pamphlets, democratizing access to information and fueling the Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation in Europe. This dissemination of knowledge played a pivotal role in shaping public opinion, religious beliefs, and political ideologies, laying the groundwork for European colonial expansion (Roos, 2019).

Gunpowder, another Chinese invention dating back to the 9th century, revolutionized warfare and military tactics. Initially used for fireworks and later for weaponry, gunpowder drastically altered the dynamics of warfare by introducing firearms, cannons, and explosives (Whipps, 2008). The widespread adoption of gunpowder-based weapons by European powers during the Age of Exploration and subsequent colonization facilitated their conquests of distant lands and subjugation of Indigenous peoples.

Despite their Chinese origins, these inventions became instrumental in Western European colonization efforts due to their transformative effects on communication, warfare, and knowledge dissemination. They facilitated the expansion of European empires and the subjugation of Indigenous peoples, leaving a lasting legacy on global history and geopolitics (Hacker, 1977).

Papal Decrees and Colonization via Political Decrees

Christopher Columbus sought a faster route from Europe to Asia and decided to head westward from Spain rather than eastward. This voyage led to the European discovery of the so-called New World and initiated a wave of colonization. Columbus landed in Taíno-occupied territory in Guanahani, where he boasted of the capture, enslavement, and sale of Indigenous women and children. Upon returning to Europe from his third voyage, Columbus was imprisoned for his mistreatment of the Taíno and Arawak people. However, he appealed to King Ferdinand, who released him from prison (Gibson, n.d.). The disparity in consequences between his crimes against Indigenous groups and offenses against settler colonialists underscores the prevailing attitudes of the time — enabled simultaneously in law and media.

Colonization found further validation through the Doctrine of Discovery, formalized by a series of papal bulls, granting colonial powers such as Spain and Portugal the authority to lay claim to lands and subjugate non-Christian populations in Africa and the New World (Chappell, 2023). Notable among these decrees are Pope Nicholas V’s Dum diversas (1452), Romanus Pontifex (1455), and Pope Alexander VI’s Inter caetera (1493), which provided legal justification for European expansionism alongside enslavement of non-Christians (Chappell, 2023). These bulls, rooted in the Doctrine of Discovery, sanctioned European colonialism and conquest, deeming non-Christian lands as terra nullius (nobody’s land). Although the Vatican nullified these bulls by the late 1530s, their revocation came too late to impede the devastating effects of colonialism. European monarchies, driven by a sense of imperialistic entitlement, exploited new territories, resources, and peoples, exemplified by the transatlantic slave trade initiated by Spain in 1502 (Rout, 2015). This doctrine facilitated the European colonial powers in claiming vast territories, leading to centuries of colonization, dispossession, and cultural erasure of Indigenous populations.

The Royal Proclamation of 1763, issued by King George III, marked a pivotal moment by formally acknowledging Indigenous rights and land title, setting the stage for future negotiations between Indigenous nations and colonial powers (Fenge & Aldridge, 2015). Despite such recognition, movements for independence burgeoned in various regions amidst colonial expansion. India’s liberation from British rule in 1947, followed by the independence of nations like Sudan (1956) and Ghana (1957), signified a global shift towards self-determination (Adam, 2019; Davies, 2010).

The Doctrine of Discovery gained legitimacy in the United States through the landmark case Johnson v. McIntosh in 1823 (Newcomb, 1992). In this Supreme Court decision, Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that European nations gained ultimate dominion over lands discovered by them, while Indigenous peoples retained only a right of occupancy. This ruling entrenched the Doctrine of Discovery in U.S. law, justifying the dispossession of Indigenous lands and setting a precedent for future legal decisions regarding Native American land rights. However, recent years have seen a paradigm shift, with Pope Francis formally renouncing the doctrine on March 30, 2023 (Tomchuk, 2022). Nevertheless, the enduring legacy of racial superiority embedded within this doctrine continues to permeate various facets of Canada’s colonial past. This takes place through the Indian Act, the reserve system, the Indian residential school tragedy, and dispossession and deculturalization of  children through child welfare services  (Tomchuk, 2022).

The historical narrative outline above underscores the lasting ramifications of colonialism and the ongoing assertion of Indigenous rights, sovereignty, and reconciliation. While significant strides have been made toward acknowledging past injustices, the journey towards decolonization remains fraught with challenges, necessitating continued efforts to dismantle oppressive structures and foster genuine reconciliation.

Mass Media, Colonization, and Westernization: Intracontinental Perspectives

Indigenous Peoples in so-called Canada have played multifaceted roles in media, as creators and consumers of media, and also as subjects

Before colonization, Indigenous communication thrived through a myriad of methods: spoken languages, diverse sign languages, visual cues like oculesics, drumming, ceremonial practices, and various forms of artistry including petroglyphs, pictographs, beadwork, clothing, pre-colonial architecture, and storytelling. However, colonization drastically altered these traditional modes of expression (Vastokas, 2019).

The arrival of colonizers brought devastating diseases like smallpox, influenza, and tuberculosis, which decimated Indigenous populations across the continent (Indigenous Corporate Training Inc., 2017). Additionally, settler-colonizers implemented policies that led to the depletion of wildlife populations, such as bison and other hooved species. Shoot-to-kill policies and habitat destruction due to agricultural and industrial development further exacerbated this decline (Mamers, 2019).

In the sixteenth century, North America was home to an estimated 25 to 30 million bison; however, by the late nineteenth century, fewer than 100 individual bison remained (Taylor, 2011). While wild bison populations have marginally increased since then, they remain in the few thousands. Similarly, other hooved species like deer, elk, moose, muskox, and caribou have faced severe endangerment due to overhunting and habitat loss caused by colonization (Landau, 2020). The decline of access to traditional food pathways has led to mass starvation and death across Indigenous communities. Today, there are higher rates of gastrointestinal illnesses and diseases for Indigenous peoples because of inaccess to traditional foods, and manufactured dependence on supply chain foods created through mass commercialization (CDC, 2013).

Colonization also profoundly influenced the communication methods of Indigenous Peoples. Coincidentally, the first book ever published on this continent, Mamusse Wunneetupanatamwe Up-Biblum God, also known as the Eliot Bible, was published in 1663 in New England. Remarkably, it was printed not in English, Spanish, French, Latin, or Portuguese, but in the Wampanoag language of the Wampanoag Peoples (Dippold, 2013). As with many first publishings of Indigenous languages, the Eliot Bible was a catechism meant for religious conversion.

The emergence of newspapers in the 1700s in North America was often driven and funded by individuals of influence from colonizing nations (Yarhi, 2017). Consequently, media from colonizing nations historically promoted narratives of national conquest rather than offering critical scrutiny of oppressive policies like the Indian Act first implemented in 1876 (Leslie, 2002).

In 1821, Sequoyah, whose father was a British linguist and whose mother was of Cherokee descent, developed Cherokee syllabics. This marked a significant milestone in Indigenous textual literacies. This innovation eventually led to the establishment of the first Indigenous-owned newspaper — publishing in both Cherokee syllabics and English (Cyca, 2022).

The Cherokee Phoenix, the first Indigenous-owned newspaper on this continent, began publication in 1828 with Elias Boudinot, a Cherokee, as its inaugural editor. The Cherokee Phoenix offered free access to those who could only read Cherokee, while English readers paid on a sliding scale (Langguth, 2010). However, colonization posed challenges, with state attempts to suppress anti- colonial opinions expressed in the newspaper. Despite periodic interruptions, the Cherokee Phoenix persevered, experiencing a revival in the 1950s and 1980s (Fourkiller, 2021). Today, the Cherokee Phoenix is exclusively published in English. It is available online.

In the late 1860s, Indigenous Peoples began to be portrayed in popular media culture, notably in dime novels (Berny, 2020). From the late 1800s to the 1950s, depictions of Indigenous Peoples in film, theatre, and literature often perpetuated the Wild West stereotype of cowboys and Indians (Marubbio & Buffalohead, 2013). Some early anti-Indigenous Westerns were even seen as forms of state propaganda, while others took extensive creative liberties, leading to flagrant inaccuracies in their portrayal of Indigenous Peoples (Marubbio & Buffalohead, 2013). However, in the 1950s, a new genre of Western movies emerged, known as the Revisionist Western or Indian Western, which depicted Indigenous Peoples more sympathetically and strived for greater accuracy (Marubbio & Buffalohead, 2013).

The advent of film technology in the late 1800s gave rise to the first documentaries. Notably, the first documentary was about Inuit. Titled Nanook of the North, it was filmed in the Arctic of Canada and released in 1922 (Wise, 2013). However, it was not until much later that Indigenous film crews themselves started making documentaries. In 1968, the Indian Film Crew was founded under the Challenge for Change initiative at the National Film Board’s (NFB) Montreal headquarters (Cardinal, n.d.).This pivotal moment marked the onset of Indigenous filmmaking by Indigenous creators at the NFB, potentially catalyzing similar movements across Canada.

In terms of television, during the Second World War (1939-1945), the Canadian Armed Forces established small radio stations in the North. In 1950, the CBC began supplying these stations with recorded programs (The History of Canadian Broadcasting, n.d.). By 1958, the CBC had initiated its own Northern Radio Service. Two years later, in 1960, the first service by Indigenous Peoples targeting Indigenous peoples would be broadcast in the Inuit language Inuktitut from studios in Montreal (The History of Canadian Broadcasting, n.d.).

Indigenous Peoples who were fluent in their Indigenous languages played pivotal roles during various wars in Canadian history, as opposing forces struggled to translate these languages (Bowker, 2023). At the same time, Indigenous children in residential schools were punished for speaking their Indigenous languages (Miller, 2024).

During this period, increased media attention was directed towards Canada’s treatment of Indigenous Peoples. In 1951, Canada repealed some of its most oppressive policies within the Indian Act. Indigenous Peoples no longer required permission from Canada to leave reserves, and could keep their status as an Indian if attending post-secondary (The Canadian Encyclopedia, 2022).

Furthermore, academia’s role in discussing Indigenous issues is not without its own challenges, as it is susceptible to various forms of colonization. This includes phenomena such as the researcher ownership of documented Indigenous knowledges, or pretendianism, where individuals falsely claim an Indigenous identity for personal gain or other motives (Tallbear, 2023). Such actions undermine the authenticity and integrity of Indigenous cultures and communities, perpetuating harmful stereotypes and eroding trust (Tallbear, 2023).

Additionally, extractivism, an economic model characterized by the exploitation of natural resources without regard for environmental or social consequences, has disproportionately impacted Indigenous lands and livelihoods. The prioritization of profit over sustainability has led to environmental degradation, loss of cultural heritage, and social dislocation for Indigenous Peoples (Preston, 2017).

Moreover, denialism poses another obstacle, as it involves the rejection or dismissal of facts and evidence, including historical injustices and ongoing systemic inequalities faced by Indigenous communities. By denying or minimizing these realities, denialism perpetuates harmful narratives and impedes efforts to address systemic issues and promote reconciliation (Carleton, 2021).

Indigenous sovereignty and representation: Mass media in Canada

To understand Indigenous media representation it’s important to relate to its historical context shaped by colonial legislation and policy. The Mohawk Institute is the first recognized school in the residential school system. Established in 1828 as Canada’s inaugural Indian Day School and officially recognized in 1831, stands as a stark reminder of the early imposition of colonial education on Indigenous communities (Miller, 2012). Concurrently, the systematic decimation of bison, deer, and elk populations during the mid-1800s signalled a deliberate strategy to undermine Indigenous livelihoods and sovereignty (Mamers, 2019).

As colonial expansion intensified, the Canadian government employed coercive measures, including the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and the military, to forcibly relocate Indigenous Peoples onto state-controlled reserves (Butts, 2023). The enactment of the Indian Act in 1876, coinciding with Treaty 7, institutionalized the state’s control over Indigenous lives, laying the groundwork for further assimilationist policies (The Canadian Encyclopedia, 2022).

Shortly after, Kahkewaquonaby, or Peter Edmund Jones, would launch the first Indigenous-owned newspaper in Canada. The Indian, as it was called, ran 24 issues from 1885-1886 (Wronko, 2016).

The integration of Indigenous communities into the colonial framework culminated in the mandatory establishment of residential schools under the Indian Act in 1920 (Miller, 2012). These schools, reaching their peak operation in 1931, inflicted widespread ostracization, trauma and cultural erasure on Indigenous children until the last residential school closed its doors in 1997. Today, such contemporary education systems often do not teach Indigenous languages or cultures in ways which respect Indigenous worldviews and knowledge systems.

Amidst this oppressive backdrop, Indigenous resistance and cultural revival demanded presence on emerging media platforms. In 1968, the National Film Board of Canada’s funding of the Indian Film Crew marked a significant milestone in Indigenous filmmaking (Arnaquq-Baril, n.d.). Simultaneously, the development of Inuktitut radio stations by Inuit communities in the early 1970s paved the way for the establishment of the Inuit Broadcasting Corporation in 1981 (Inuit Broadcasting Corporation, n.d.). These endeavors laid the groundwork for Indigenous filmmakers like Zacharias Kunuk, whose work with Igloolik Isuma Productions in 1990 catalyzed a renaissance in Inuit filmmaking (Bredin, 2015).

In 1990, media attention shifted dramatically as Indigenous land defenders took a stand against the desecration of ancestral burial grounds in Oka, Quebec, igniting what would become known as the Oka Crisis (de Bruin, 2023). Lasting 78 days, Kanien’kéha:ka in Kanehsatà:ke rallied against the encroachment of neighbouring residents from Oka, who sought to repurpose their community gravesites for a golf course. The crisis became a focal point in national media, drawing widespread attention to Indigenous land rights and sovereignty. The coverage highlighted not only the urgent need to defend Indigenous lands but also the power of media sovereignty in amplifying Indigenous voices and issues on a national scale. This pivotal moment underscored the role of media in shaping public perceptions and driving conversations around Indigenous rights and self-determination.

The evolution of Indigenous media representation is deeply intertwined with colonial history, marked by assertions of Indigenous rights, self-determination, and cultural preservation. With each evolution in media,, Indigenous communications continue shaping narratives, telling stories from their perspectives, representing resistance movements, sharing language and cultural knowledge respectfully, challenging stereotypes, and asserting self-determination.

Key Thinkers

The field of decolonial and dewestern theory encompasses a global array of influential thinkers from distinct perspectives and schools of thought. These theoretical frameworks evolve uniquely, drawing from global influences within the contexts of their respective lands, languages, and governance systems.

As emphasized by Tuck and Yang (2012), “decolonization is not a metaphor.” Such a statement stresses the necessity for concrete actions against settler-colonial regimes. This call for direct intervention underscores the pressing need for decolonial approaches in communications.

Moreover, it’s crucial to acknowledge the pervasive colonial and Western biases inherent in literacy itself. For instance,  slave owners in America often violently forbid literacy among those they enslaved, except when it served the interest of slave owners for administrative purposes (Smithsonian American Art Museum, n.d.). In contrast, residential school teachers often forced higher literacy on Indigenous children for the purpose of religious conversion (Smith, 2019) .

Decolonization and dewesternization are not fixed to North America. A comprehensive understanding of the impact of colonialism and Westernization on media, literacy, education, language, and land necessitates a close examination of specific case studies from different continents. In an increasingly global world, Indigenous media and theorists increasingly contribute to the diverse roles and influences at play.

DECOLONIZATION AND DEWESTERNIZATION IN BLACK AMERICAN MEDIA AND SCHOLARSHIP

Frederick Douglass was born into slavery in Maryland in 1818 and emerged as a prominent leader of the abolitionist movement in the United States after escaping from bondage. A voracious reader and celebrated intellectual of his time, Douglass established several newspapers, including The North Star, Frederick Douglass’ Paper, Douglass’ Monthly, and New National Era — all of which actively promoted anti-slavery sentiments (Biography.com Editors, n.d.). The North Star, founded in 1847, served as a pivotal platform for Douglass to advocate for freedom and equality (National Park Service, n.d.). His courageous efforts in journalism played a significant role in shaping public opinion and advancing the cause of emancipation.

In the late 1800s, Dr. W.E.B. DuBois wrote a dissertation challenging the theft of Black bodies from Africa for the transatlantic slave trade, utilizing the lens of anticolonization (DuBois, 1896). As the first Black American to earn a doctorate degree, DuBois later founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909 (Rudwick, 2024).

During the advent of radio and television, Malcolm X emerged as a prominent figure of decolonization in the Americas. He played a crucial role in establishing the Nation of Islam from 1952 to 1964 (Mamiya, 2024). Concurrently, the Civil Rights Movement in the United States aimed to end racial segregation between 1954 and 1968 (Carson, 2024). Additionally, the Black Panthers (1966-1982) and the American Indian Movement (1968-present) were instrumental in mobilizing against colonization and Eurowesternization (Luebering, 2024).

Dr. Audre Lorde, a Black anticolonial scholar and poet born in New York to Caribbean parents, emphasized the societal divisions based on differences rather than fostering unity in movements, such as White feminism (Poetry Foundation, n.d.) . Notably, Lorde (1984) remarked, “The master’s tools will never dismantle the master’s house. They may allow us temporarily to beat him at his own game, but they will never allow us to bring about genuine change” (Lorde, 2007, para. 10).

bell hooks, a pioneering Black American scholar, delved extensively into the intersection of race, feminism, and media. Her critical analysis of mass media highlighted the perpetuation of power structures and ideologies, coining the term “Imperialist White Supremacist Capitalist Patriarchy” to critique media representations and narratives and broader power structures (Yancy & hooks, 2015). Through her work, hooks challenged dominant narratives and advocated for media literacy as a tool for social change (Squires, 2013).

In summary, these influential figures, through their activism, scholarship, and cultural contributions, have left an indelible mark on the ongoing assertion for equality, justice, and decolonization.

Decolonization and Dewesternization of Media in Turtle Island, Denendeh, and Inuit Nunangat

The League of Indians of Canada was established in 1918, marking the first national advocacy organization for Indigenous Peoples’ rights (Dyck & Sadik, 2020). However, during the same period, Canada removed further rights from Indigenous Peoples through amendments to the Indian Act, and the mandatory implementation of Residential Schools starting in 1920 (Miller, 2012).

By the 1930s, the League of Indians had dissolved (Dyck & Sadik, 2020). In the 1940s, it was succeeded by the National Indian Brotherhood in 1945, which played a significant role in advocating for Indigenous rights. he National Indian Brotherhood formed in 1945, dissolved in the 1970s, and later reemerged with renewed spirit in 1982 as the Assembly of First Nations (Dyck & Sadik, 2020). In 1971, Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami was founded to represent Inuit advocacy, while the Métis formed the Métis National Council in 1983 (Freeman, 2019).

Many Indigenous media-makers in Canada are informed by decolonial media theories. Duncan McCue, an Ojibwe journalist from Chippewas of Georgina Island First Nation, has been instrumental in decolonizing media through initiatives like the Reporting in Indigenous Communities program and his book Decolonizing Journalism (McCue, 2022).

Elder Albert Marshall’s concept of “two-eyed-seeing,” which acknowledges both Indigenous and settler perspectives, is widely cited in Indigenous scholarship (Bartlett, Marshall & Marshall, 2012). The concept of two-eyed seeing observes differences and similarities in perspective, and can be expanded to include three, four, and even 10,000-eyed-seeing, dependent on the perspectives of those involved.

Dr. Glen Coulthard, a member of Yellowknifes Dene First Nation, has made significant contributions to Indigenous scholarship. His book Red Skin, White Mask proposes transformative praxis through the concept of “grounded normativity” to describe Indigenous connections to the land, and the rejection of the colonial politics of recognition, countering Taylor’s “politics of recognition”(Coulthard, 2014).

Dr. Leanne Betasamosake Simpson, a Michi Saagiig Anishnaabeg scholar (Simpson, n.d.), co-founded the Dechinta Centre for Research and Learning with Coulthard, promoting land-based Indigenous education. Together, they developed the Dechinta Certificate in Land-Based Research, emphasizing Indigenous ways of knowing. Writing “Land as Pedagogy”, Simpson (2014) challenges colonial education structures.

Inuit scholars like Natasha Ita MacDonald from Nunavik have also contributed to decolonial discourse, addressing issues such as language revitalization and Indigenous education (see for example MacDonald , 2023). Inuit decolonization efforts have manifested in various domains, including media, governance, language revitalization, and art, culminating in initiatives like the construction of a multi-million dollar media center in Iqaluit in 2015 (Van Dusen, 2015) and ongoing plans for the Inuit Nunangat University.

These developments highlight the ongoing self-determination of Indigenous communities through media . Indigenous Peoples have used media to re-assert their rights, revitalize languages and cultures, and counter hegemony in various spheres, from advocacy and education to media and scholarship. Despite the enduring legacy of colonial policies and doctrines, these initiatives reflect a powerful movement toward decolonization and self-determination.

Intercontinental Perspectives on Decolonization and Dewesternization

The concept of decolonial and dewestern praxis is manifested differently on each continent. Examples include political revolutions, uprisings, acts of sovereignty, and decolonization efforts to break free from colonial rule. Similarly, revolutions in education and sovereignty have occurred through schools that emphasize language or cultural revitalization, as well as through intercontinental academia and scholarship. Additionally, anticolonial media revolutions involve the appropriation of colonial and Western media for Indigenous communications, or the rejection and disenfranchisement of Eurocolonial communication models to re-empower Indigenous communications (Cordes & Sabzalian, 2020).

Decolonial media actively resists colonization and may utilize communication platforms to enact such resistance. Dewesternization, alternately, involves moving away from media and learning spaces influenced by Western European culture. Since individuals experience colonization differently, their approaches to decolonial media vary (Glück, 2018).

Many anticolonial and dewesternizing thinkers have directly challenged colonial powers — though not all are widely known or published. Their efforts are often intertwined with revolutions and acts for independence (Mignolo, 2011). However, the contributions of underground and unknown pivotal thinkers are frequently overlooked and excluded from mainstream media narratives. Instead, the unnamed and unquoted counter-colonial legacies endure within the cultural fabric of their respective societies and communities. Such scholars named below are those who are known within academia and scholarship.

Carribbean

In the 1960s. Franz Fanon, a psychiatrist born in Martinique, published his seminal works Black Skin, White Masks (1952, translated 2008) and Wretched of the Earth (1963). These texts are significant contributions to the global discourse on anticolonization and dewesternization. Fanon later joined an Algerian liberationist movement, providing medical expertise to soldiers and contributing to the El Moudjahid newspaper (Drabinski, 2019). Fanon’s active anti-colonial stance was evident in his publishing before his involvement in the resistance movement (Drabinski, 2019).

Building on Fanon’s ideas, Dr. Sylvia Wynter, a Jamaican scholar, critiques the “overrepresentation of Man,” which refers to Eurocentric male idealism (Wynter, 2001). She introduces the concept of “sociogeny,” highlighting how humans are rooted in cultural narratives and symbols that influence their biology. Wynter (2001)  also discusses the racialization of colonization and the attempted domination of Eurocentric narratives.

These scholars, through their critical analyses of colonialism and Western hegemony, continue to shape contemporary discussions on decolonization and the assertion of Indigenous voices and perspectives in global discourse.

Latin America

Paolo Freire, a Brazilian educator renowned for his innovative pedagogical approach, dedicated himself to teaching literacy to Indigenous farmers in Brazil. His groundbreaking work, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, published in 1967, stands as a pinnacle in decolonial education, advocating for the empowerment of marginalized communities through critical consciousness and the dialogical dialectic (Freire, 1967). Since its publication, Freire’s ideas have catalyzed global shifts in education delivery, inspiring educators worldwide to adopt participatory and liberatory teaching methods.

Aníbal Quijano, a Peruvian sociologist and scholar, emerged as a leading critic of Eurocentrism and coloniality in the late 20th century. In his seminal work from the early 1990s to the 2000s, Quijano explored the coloniality of knowledge and the enduring legacy of colonial power structures in shaping contemporary social relations . Through his scholarly contributions, Quijano challenged dominant narratives and advocated for the recognition of diverse ways of knowing.

Furthermore, the Zapatista Movement, led by Indigenous Peoples in Mexico, exemplifies the intersection of theory and praxis in the anticolonial and dewesternizing tradition. Since the mid-1990s, the Zapatistas have rebelled against the oppressive state apparatus, asserting Indigenous autonomy and demanding social justice and land rights (Harvey, 2003). Their resistance movement serves as an active embodiment of decolonial praxis, highlighting the agency of Indigenous communities in challenging colonialism and advancing alternative visions of society.

These figures and movements share a common commitment to challenging hegemonic systems and empowering marginalized communities. They advocate for critical consciousness, recognition of sovereignty of knowledge systems, and resistance against colonialism and oppression.

Africa

Decolonization across continental Africa unfolded between the 1950s and 1970s, marking a pivotal period in the continent’s history of liberation from colonial rule (Office of the Historian, n.d.). Alongside political independence, African intellectual movements emerged, fostering critical engagements with culture, history, and political economy.

In Senegal, the Dakar School of Culture emerged, while the Ibadan School of History was established in Nigeria.Tanzania saw the rise of the Dar es Salaam School of Political Economy. These institutions became hubs for intellectual inquiry, nurturing African perspectives on the continent’s past, present, and future (Mkandawire, 2005).

African Women’s Studies played a crucial role in decolonization efforts, challenging Western-centric narratives and reclaiming Indigenous knowledge systems. Dr. Ifi Amadiume, a Nigerian scholar based at the  University  of  London,  published on the  precolonial matriarchal governance systems prevalent across Africa in her seminal work African Matriarchal Foundations (Amadiume, 1987).

Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o, a prominent writer and scholar in Kenya, emerged as a leading voice in the decolonization of education and literature. Renouncing Western colonial influences, Thiong’o advocated for the revitalization of Indigenous languages and cultures, founding the Gĩkũyũ language journal Mũtĩiri. His pioneering efforts included pushing for the inclusion of African literatures in African languages at the University of Nairobi, where he served as a professor (Wa Thiong’o, 1986).

Dr. Achille Mbembe, hailing from Cameroon, contributed significantly to anticolonial scholarship with his concept of “necropolitics.” This term highlights the ways in which political power structures exert control over both life and death, shaping societal hierarchies and forms of governance (Mbembe, 2003). Mbembe’s insights into the politics of mortality underscore the complex intersections of power, sovereignty, and violence related to colonization in Africa.

These influential scholars, spanning diverse fields of study, collectively illuminate the multifaceted dimensions of decolonization in Africa, emphasizing the importance of reclaiming Indigenous knowledge, challenging Western hegemony, and fostering critical engagements with power and sovereignty through media.

Polynesian

In the realm of Polynesian decolonial and dewesternizing thought, several influential scholars have emerged, contributing significant insights to the discourse on Indigenous liberation and reclaiming of cultural sovereignty. Dr. Linda Tuhiwai Smith stands out as a prominent figure, renowned for her groundbreaking work Decolonizing Methodologies (2019).This seminal text has served as a foundational framework for Indigenous scholars, knowledge sharers, and decolonial research methodologists, offering critical perspectives on research practices and methodologies that challenge colonial paradigms (Smith, 2019).

Similarly, Dr. Brendan Hokowhitu (2015) has made significant contributions to the field through his concept of post-Indigenous studies. Hokowhitu proposes a paradigm shift in postcolonial narratives, advocating for the integration of Indigenous topics as core components of education rather than optional courses. In envisioning a future where Indigenous knowledge and perspectives are woven throughout educational curricula, Hokowhitu advocates for a more inclusive and decolonized approach to learning (Hokowhitu, 2016).

Through their scholarship and advocacy, Smith and Hokowhitu exemplify the ongoing efforts within Polynesian communities to challenge colonial legacies, assert Indigenous voices, and promote cultural revitalization and empowerment.

European

Karl Marx penned influential treatises on communism and socialism, offering critical perspectives from an anti-colonial standpoint within the context of Western Europe (Marx, & Engels, 1848). Despite Marx’s profound impact on global revolutionary movements, it’s important to acknowledge that his works are rooted in a Western European thought and may not universally apply to all contexts.

Within Europe, there exists a rich tapestry of anticolonial and decolonial scholarship that extends beyond Marxian frameworks. Among these are seminal works from Samí scholars, including recent contributions by Rauna Kuokkanen (2011), May-Britt Öhman (2010, 2016), and Elina Helander-Renvall (2010, 2017). Their research sheds light on the unique experiences of Samí communities and their ongoing struggles against colonialism and cultural erasure.

Dr. Paul Meighan emerges (2023) as a prominent Indigenous Gaelic scholar, focusing on Scottish-Gaelic decolonial praxis. His interdisciplinary work delves into the intersections of Gaelic decolonial theory and Anishinaabe decolonial theory, offering valuable insights into the complexities of Indigenous resistance and resurgence in European contexts.

Additionally, Antje Glück, a German journalist and scholar, has made significant contributions to the discourse on colonialism and Westernization in journalism and media. In her writings, Glück emphasizes the need for a reevaluation of power dynamics in global academic knowledge production and dissemination, urging for a shift away from Eurocentric perspectives (Glück, 2018).

Collectively, these diverse voices challenge conventional narratives and highlight the complexities of decolonization efforts within European contexts, underscoring the importance of amplifying Indigenous perspectives and disrupting entrenched power structures.

Arabian

Edward Said is one of the most cited decolonial scholars  in  academia,  standing  alongside  influential figures such as Frantz Fanon, bell hooks, and Karl Marx, . His seminal work, Orientalism (1978), offers a critical analysis of the ways in which the Euro-Western media and educational institutions have historically portrayed Arabian peoples. Said argues that these portrayals are not just innocent or benign misrepresentations but are part of a larger discourse that constructs the “Orient” as the exotic, backward “Other” in contrast to the rational and progressive “West.” This process of othering, romanticization, and fetishization of Middle Eastern nations serves to justify and perpetuate colonial domination and control.

In Orientalism, Said (1978) examines a wide range of cultural artifacts, including literature, art, and academic works, to demonstrate how Orientalist discourse has been embedded in Western thought. He contends that these representations create a distorted image of the Middle East, which has profound implications for how Arab peoples are perceived and treated in media. By constructing the Orient as a place of mystery, decadence, and danger, Orientalism provides a rationale for Western intervention and dominance (Said,1978).

Said’s (1978) critique extends beyond historical analysis to question the ongoing effects of Orientalism in modern times. He highlights how contemporary media and educational systems continue to perpetuate stereotypes and misconceptions about Arabian peoples, contributing to ongoing prejudice and discrimination (Said, 1978). His work calls for a more nuanced and respectful understanding of different cultures which recognizes the complexity and diversity of human societies.

Alongside Said are many decolonial or dewesternizing Arab scholars. Among those are Dana el Kurd (2023) who writes of the academic extraction and scholarship through the illusion of localization and guise of decolonization.

In addition to providing a theoretical framework for understanding the relationship between knowledge and power, Arabian decolonial and dewestern work challenges the roles of Western media and scholars in how they position others and themselves against the backdrop of orientalism (Said, 1978) and guise of aide (Kurd, 2023). Arab decolonial scholarship challenges us to question the sources and motivations behind the images and narratives we consume and how we paint ourselves in Western media, even in attempts ofa more equitable and authentic ways of engaging with the world.

Asian

Notably, there are thousands of Indigenous groups in Asia, among which are more than 370 million self-identified Indigenous peoples. Next to Africa, Asia is home to some of the richest pluralism of diversity of Indigenous Peoples (Benedict, 2020). However, there is likely the least amount of accessible academic literature on decolonization coming published within Asian countries.

India, with its many hundreds of Indigenous communities, has established a precedent of decolonization in its own right. The Subaltern Studies Group, formed in the 1980s, emphasized the perspective of the oppressed and underclass as representative of the majority, rather than an outsider’s academic perspective (Mato, 2000). This group was predominantly composed of Indian male scholars but provided a new analytic shift of perspective in the space of postcolonial studies.

Of similar ilk, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, a member of the Subaltern Studies Group, introduces the term “worlding.” She argues that a colonial nation relies on national rhetoric to exoticize a nation deemed to be “third world,” thereby legitimizing its colonization (Spivak, 1985).

Outside of India, there has been what is regarded as “a somewhat timid response” (Serrano-Muñoz, 2021) in terms of decolonial literature in East Asia. Serrano-Muñoz (2021 writes:

Bridging the gap in decolonial scholarship within Asia is essential for amplifying the voices of Indigenous communities and fostering a more inclusive understanding of postcolonial dynamics.

Where there is minimal publishing on Asian decolonization, Asian scholarship does, however, richly advance literature on dewesternization. Professor Koichi Iwabuchi, with University of Technology Sydney, illustrates the role of media’s influence on Eurowestern values, ideologies, and media in Asian communities and societies (Iwabuchi, 2010). Asian deimperialization literature, as well, has recognized the ongoing anglophonic bias in journalism and academic literature in maintaining imperial hegemonization in contemporary journalism (Ai, 2021).

Foundational Concepts

Maps and namesakes: continental, territorial, and municipal

Precolonial cartographies were vast and diverse, utilizing various methods such as fixed depictions on birch bark scrolls, navigation by the moving stars on treelines, bending tree branches for orientation, the indents of Inuit soapstone carvings of archipelagos, and temporary drawings on the ground or snow. A variety of cartographies has been essential for Indigenous navigation and understanding of the land.

Colonization involves the seizure and ownership of lands, lands, conducted through force and conflict against Indigenous Peoples. The existence of Canada as a nation today is a direct result of both colonization and Westernization working in tandem.

Recognizing the impact of Westernization and colonization, many media outlets and organizations have chosen to reject colonial names for land. Instead, some writers, scholars, and media-makers refer to Canada as “so-called Canada” or “the lands now referred to as Canada.” The name “Canada” itself is derived from the Huron-Iroquois word “Kanata,” meaning “village” or “settlement” (Government of Canada, n.d.).

Similarly, some media-makers have rejected the namesake of the Americas , as the name is derived from the early Italian cartographer Amerigo Vespucci, of the early 1500s . Instead, the continent is occasionally referred to decolonially by its Algonquian and Iroquoian namesake, Turtle Island. It is important to note that the term Turtle Island is rooted in belief systems specific to certain Indigenous groups, particularly Algonquian and Iroquoian (Robinson, 2018). The term is not universally used by all Indigenous Peoples.

Native Land Digital is a frequently referenced digital resource actively working towards sharing global perspectives of Indigenous communities without colonial borders or boundaries. The mapping group represents just one of many global efforts to represent decolonial cartography in action.

Referring to areas by their Indigenous placenames is also practiced with territories and provinces—such as Denendeh instead of Northwest Territories (NWT Timeline, n.d.)—and municipalities—such as Mohkinstis instead of Calgary, Alberta (Lambert, 2018). Some places have multiple placenames, differing among Indigenous languages and dialects.

Decolonial cartographies are maps or representations that challenge colonial perspectives and narratives, seeking to decolonize geographic representation and reimagine space from Indigenous, marginalized, or non-colonial perspectives. This term encompasses efforts to decenter colonial hierarchies and empower local voices in the interpretation and representation of landscapes, territories, and boundaries.

Decolonial cartographies are more than just maps; they represent a radical departure from traditional geographic representations, challenging the dominant colonial narratives that have shaped our understanding of space and place. These anticolonial and dewesternizing mappings seek to dismantle the power dynamics inherent in colonial cartography, which often marginalized Indigenous representation to place and knowledge systems while perpetuating colonial control over territories. By centering Indigenous, marginalized, and non-Western perspectives, decolonial cartographies offer a counter- narrative that reflects diverse cultural and ecological relationships with the land. They provide a platform for reclaiming sovereignty over ancestral territories, fostering cultural resurgence, and challenging the legacy of colonialism in geographic discourse. Through decolonial cartographies, physical space is reimagined not only as connection to land but also as places of memory, resistance, and resilience.

Indigenous Intellectual Property

Indigenous knowledge is not guaranteed any explicit protections in Canada’s constitution (Henderson, 2021). Within the framework of

Canadian public domains, Indigenous peoples’ knowledge is often relegated to the public domain — a body of information accessible for unrestricted use by anyone (Henderson, 2021). This classification perpetuates a historically biased Eurocentric perspective on Indigenous knowledge. Throughout history, Indigenous intellectual property has lacked protection against colonial legislation (Henderson, 2021). Various Indigenous journalists and academics, both in Canada and globally, have addressed the issue of Indigenous intellectual property theft. Notable scholars in Canada include Dr. Andrea Bear Nicholas (2015), Dr. Marie Battiste (2011), Kayla Lar-Son (2022), and Gwen Philips (n.d.).

Dr. Gregory Younging, a member of Opaskwayak Cree Nation, emerges as one of the foremost authorities in the field of Indigenous intellectual property rights. Younging’s dissertation on Indigenous intellectual property and his subsequent presentation to the World Intellectual Property Organization in 2010 significantly contributed to the dialogue on this subject. In his submission, Younging (2010) introduced the term “Gnaritus Nullius,” stating: “Just as Indigenous territories were declared as Terra Nullius [nobody’s land] in the colonization process, so too has TK [traditional knowledge] been treated as Gnaritas Nullius (Nobody’s Knowledge) by the IPR [intellectual property rights] system and consequently flowed into the public domain along with Western knowledge” (p. 13). The leakage of Indigenous knowledge into the public domain, instead of being safeguarded by Indigenous knowledge legislation, has been exposed and made vulnerable through Canadian intellectual property and data laws.

The ongoing assertions of Indigenous intellectual property underscores the importance of recognizing and respecting Indigenous knowledge governance systems within legal and societal frameworks. By acknowledging and upholding Indigenous rights to the governance of their own ancestral knowledge systems, Indigenous communities can feel more comfortable sharing secret, sacred or sensitive knowledges.

Rematriation and Reattribution

Rematriation entails the return of high-fidelity media or objects, including recordings, documentation, pictures, and video, to their original Indigenous communities. This concept extends beyond physical materials to encompass the return of Indigenous bodies to their ancestral homelands (Gray, 2022). Despite historical withholding by galleries, libraries, archives, and museums, also known as GLAMs, have begun addressing issues of rematriation and return of cultural materials.

Conversely, reattribution involves redistributing intellectual property rights from the media-maker to Indigenous knowledge keepers or their communities . This process seeks to rectify the historical imbalance in Western European intellectual property law and empower Indigenous communities to assert ownership over their imagery and narratives.

In embracing these principles of rematriation and reattribution, settler academics can actively contribute to the decolonization of media spaces, fostering greater equity and representation for Indigenous peoples. Through collaborative efforts and respect for Indigenous knowledge systems, the media landscape can evolve towards a more inclusive and just future.

Allyship by Settler Academics and Journalists

There have been numerous instances of decolonial theorists who, while not Indigenous themselves, contribute valuable insights from settler ancestries.

For instance, Seeing Red: A History of Natives in Canadian Newspapers (2011) was co-authored by Dr. Mark Cronlund Anderson (Canadian) and Dr. Carmen L. Robertson (Lakota-Scottish). This collaborative work delves into the historical biases present in early newspapers, shedding light on Indigenous representation in media.

Dr. Patricia W. Elliott, who teaches investigative and community journalism at the First Nations University of Canada, has been instrumental in addressing the disparities of representation of Indigenous perspectives in media. In 2016, Elliott authored Decolonizing the Media: Challenges and Obstacles on the Road to Reconciliation, addressing this disparity.

Similarly, Dr. Brad Clark, a journalism professor at Mount Royal University, focused his dissertation on the racialized exclusion of Indigenous Peoples from Canadian media (clark, 2014). His subsequent work, Journalism’s Racial Reckoning: The News Media’s Pivot to Diversity and Inclusion (2022), examines the evolving landscape of diversity in journalism, including Indigenous voices. Clark (2022) explores media output by racialized and Indigenous journalists, highlighting the racial composition of newsrooms and the predominance of white perspectives in news coverage. Moreover, he explores how ethical interpretations often minimize systemic racism and bias, alongside the lack of awareness of racist histories in editorial decisions and news content (Clark, 2022).

Connections to Why We Study Communications

Exploring decolonization and dewesternization within the field of communication aligns with the four primary reasons for studying communication outlined in Chapter 1.

Firstly, these concepts offer critical insights into how communication shapes individuals’ identities and concepts of another within diverse cultural contexts. Decolonization and dewesternization emphasize the importance of challenging hegemonizing narratives and power structures, encouraging individuals to assert their self-determination and cultural identities in communication processes.

Secondly, decolonization and dewesternization shed light on the role of communication in civic engagement and democracy, particularly within  societies affected by colonization. By challenging colonial legacies and amplifying marginalized voices, these concepts promote more robust forms of civic participation and a more equitable democratic liberation. Understanding the impact of colonialism and Western hegemony on communication practices is crucial for fostering social justice in diverse sociopolitical contexts.

Thirdly, decolonization and dewesternization offer essential perspectives on audience reception and interpretation. By highlighting the need for culturally sensitive communication strategies and media representations, these concepts emphasize the importance of recognizing complexities of audience experiences and worldviews. Understanding how communication can perpetuate or challenge colonial ideologies is essential for promoting intercultural dialogue and mutual understanding among audiences.

Finally, decolonization and dewesternization address the crucial issue of power dynamics and social justice within communication processes. By interrogating colonial hierarchies and challenging Western-centric perspectives, these concepts aim to dismantle systems of oppression and promote truthful storytelling in its representation of Indigenous Peoples and communities. Understanding the complexities of power and privilege in communication is essential for countering colonial and Eurowesternizing agendas in academic, professional, and societal contexts.

Summary

In conclusion, this chapter has illustrated the intricate relationship between colonization, Westernization, and their profound influence on global communication. Through the examination of influential thinkers and concepts, readers have gained insights into the historical and contemporary contexts of decolonization and dewesternization. The chapter has aimed to cultivate a comprehensive understanding of these issues, equipping readers to articulate, identify, and appreciate the enduring relevance of these themes within communication studies.

This chapter’s illustration of colonization, Westernization, and their impacts on media underscores the importance of decolonization and dewesternization in contemporary communication discourse. By growing familiar with historical contexts, diverse perspectives, and ongoing efforts to assert Indigenous sovereignty and resist Western hegemonization, everyone gain a deeper understanding of the complexities involved in colonization and westernization. These key takeaways highlight the necessity of critical engagement with these themes to promote a more just and equitable media landscape.

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