1 The Essentials of Communication Theory (by Amanda Williams)

Introduction

This chapter explores the fundamentals of communication and theory. You’ll learn how theories help us understand, predict, and evaluate communication processes and gain insights into the seven major traditions in communication theory, each offering a unique perspective on the field’s development.

We’ll also highlight the importance of media literacy for navigating today’s information environment and its impact on power and society. Prepare to explore key concepts and contemporary examples that will deepen your appreciation of communication theory and its relevance to your life and career, while hopefully making the learning process enjoyable.

Learning Outcomes

What is Communication?

The term “communication” originates from the Latin word “communis,” which translates to “to share” (Peters, 2008). Communication, in its broadest sense, encompasses the process of conveying information, ideas, or feelings between individuals or groups. It involves the transmission and reception of messages through various channels such as verbal language, non-verbal cues, written text, or visual symbols (Burns, 1991). As a concept, communication is not confined to language alone but extends to the ways people exchange meaning through interpersonal interactions, media, and cultural expressions. As you will come to see in the chapters that follow, communication plays a pivotal role in shaping relationships, influencing perceptions, and constructing shared meanings within societal contexts.

What is Theory?

In communication studies, a theory is a systematic and abstract explanation of the communication process. According to Littlejohn and Foss (2011), “A theory is an abstract system of concepts and their relationships that help us to understand a phenomenon” (p. 19).

Theories in communication serve several key purposes:

• Explanation: Theories provide a framework for situating communication phenomena (Craig, 1999).
• Prediction: Theories allow researchers to make educated guesses about future communication outcomes (Griffin, Ledbetter, & Sparks, 2023).
• Control: Theories offer insights into how to influence communication processes (Miller, 2005).
• Criticism: Theories provide a basis for evaluating communication practices and outcomes (Craig & Muller, 2007).

As West and Turner (2018) note, “Theories help us organize our thoughts and observations about communication” (p. 25). In doing so, theories provide a lens through which to view and interpret communication events, guiding both research and practice in the field.

The Foundations of Communication Theory: Exploring the Seven Traditions

To appreciate communication theory, experts often refer to Craig’s (1999) seven major traditions. These traditions offer a holistic view of the field’s historical development and transformation:

1. Critical Tradition: Interprets communication as reflective discourse, exploring how such discourses influence dominant and marginalized voices.
2. Cybernetic Tradition: Envisions communication as information processing. System-based, this approach is interested in how individuals or organizations use various channels to transmit the message.
3. Phenomenological Tradition: Views communication as dialogue and experiencing otherness. Communication as an experience of self and others through exchange is a key focus.
4. Rhetorical Tradition: Defines communication as the practical art of discourse, studying how persuasion is achieved.
5. Semiotic Tradition: Theorizes communication as shared meaning through symbols mediating thoughts about things.
6. Sociocultural Tradition: Perceives communication as shaping social orders, like organizational culture.
7. Socio-Psychological Tradition: Conceptualizes communication as expression, interaction, and influence based on human psychological processes.

Each tradition provides unique insights into the field’s evolution and is explored historically in subsequent chapters.

A Historical Look at the Seven Traditions of Communication Theory

Craig and Muller (2007) provide a good historical overview and sampling of readings from each of these traditions.

They note that the rhetorical tradition was highly regarded in the academic contexts of the Greeks, Romans, Middle Ages, and Renaissance (Craig and Muller, 2007). This tradition serves as a foundational element of the discipline, allowing for a deeper appreciation of the impact of public communication.

During the twentieth century, the emergence of the semiotics tradition marked a departure from the strict reliance on written or spoken texts. Considering the global impacts of World Wars and the rise of technology, the use of symbols in communication became an important focus. For example, in wartime films, symbolic propaganda was a powerful tool. It aimed to convince people to follow authority and feel a connection to a specific place or setting (Laswell, 1971).

The critical tradition followed, intertwining with deeply political historical events and social causes between the First and Second World Wars in Europe (Paynton & Hahn, n.d.).  Marxism stands as one of the core pillars of critical theory. The critical approach wants not just to describe the world but also encourage action (known as praxis). Frankfurt school theorists are often a common grouping of scholars associated with this theory (Paynton & Hahn, n.d.).  This tradition’s lasting impact can be seen on contemporary theories associated with cultural studies and feminist theories in the chapters that follow.

Moving across the Atlantic, the socio-psychological tradition, which surfaced during the 1930s and 1940s in the United States, exemplifies scholars seeking refuge from wartime trauma (Ross, Lepper, & Ward, 2010). This tradition is grounded in behaviourism since it focuses on exploring the impact of stimuli and responses (Ross, Lepper, & Ward, 2010).

The end of World War II, saw the rise of cybernetics, aligning with the heightened global interest in technology. Delving into this era prompts reflections on other technological advances, such as television, automobiles, and early computers, and how they echo the cybernetic perspective on systems (Garbor, 1954).

The socio-cultural tradition of the late 1940s brought together the experiences of sociologists, missionaries, and cultural anthropologists working globally, emphasizing tolerance in the aftermath of World War II. Advancements in technology exposed people to previously unknown places and perspectives that shape the socio-cultural lens (Magut, 2017).

Finally, the phenomenological tradition emerged in the late 1950s and 1960s, a period characterized by dynamic social and political changes (Van Manen, 2023). Against the backdrop of the rise of counterculture movements, anti-war protests, and the advocacy for civil rights and LGTB pride, academics turned their attention to the individual’s lived experience and subjective reality (Van Manen, 2023).

It is also worth noting that postmodernism, a rich intellectual tradition that emerged in the mid-20th century began to challenge communication theories in the 1980s (DeSantis, 1997). The movement is characterized by a rejection of holistic meta theories like Marxism and Freudianism, while emphasising the relativity of truth and meaning. Postmodernism has had a profound impact on various intellectual traditions beyond communications, challenging established norms (even those of science) and encouraging a skeptical approach to the world (DeSantis, 1997).

This book caters to individuals seeking an appreciation of the common areas in the discipline of communication globally today. While preserving three key descriptors from the seven traditions (Critical, Rhetoric, and Semiotics), it expands this focus to encompass interpersonal, intercultural, and feminist approaches, as well as theories of technology, media effects, and mass media. These key subject areas are core to scholars researching and expanding the communication theory today; while grounded in the seven traditions identified above, theses areas are thematic guides to the nature of the discipline more broadly.

Why Study Communication?

While it’s beneficial to grasp the historical context and position communication as a discipline historically and its common subject areas of interest,  it becomes even more valuable to envision how we can respond to the following question when trying to connect the discipline to our daily practices: why study communications, and how can a review of its foundational principles help me see the world differently?

There are at least four powerful answers to this question.

The first is that communication is intimately connected to our identity and helps us form relationships. Mead (1934), a prominent figure in sociological thought, as you will learn more about in Chapter 2, identified the pivotal role of communication in shaping our sense of self and in comprehending the identities of those around us. Mead’s perspective accentuates the idea that through communication, our identity is not only constructed but also intricately linked to the identities of others.

This concept of identity formation extends into the realm of representation, encompassing the images we project to ourselves and the external world through traditional and social media platforms. Numerous units in this course will prompt you to contemplate two fundamental questions: 1) who are you? and 2) how do the messages conveyed impact you?

Theories that delve into this intricate connection between communication, identity, and representation are particularly relevant in various contexts. These include interpersonal theories like symbolic interaction, theories exploring the impact of technology such as media ecology and media multiplexity, feminist approaches like standpoint and muted group, semiotics and particularly myth-making, cultural studies and the encoding and decoding model and intercultural theories (such as face negotiation). Through these diverse theoretical lenses, you will gain a view of how communication intricately shapes our identities, influences our relationships, and plays a pivotal role in the representation of ourselves in the broader societal context.

The second is that civic life depends on communication.

Political theorist John Dewey strongly believed in the need for communication in a functioning democracy (Dewey, 1916).

The elevated significance of communication scholarship is grounded in the long-standing recognition that civic life and political policy fundamentally revolve around communication dynamics. Much like the science of persuasion operates in the business realm to advocate for specific products and consumer behaviours, the same reliance on communication is evident in the spheres of governance, corporate enterprises, and activist movements. In these areas, communication functions as the linchpin that shapes collective perceptions of what is deemed right or wrong for the trajectory of our society.

What distinguishes communication from other professions is the explicit inclusion of the protection of freedom of the press in democratic constitutions. This reflects a deeply ingrained belief that the preservation of freedom of speech and information is paramount for the effective functioning of democracy. This becomes particularly important in our contemporary enviroment as we grapple with the influence of both traditional media and social media in challenging or propagating “fake news.”

Chapters within this book will prompt you to critically examine the multifaceted role of communication in democracy and activism. These include explorations of propaganda, cultivation theory, agenda setting, feminist perspectives, and cultural studies. Through these units, you will be exposed to the pivotal role communication plays in shaping democratic processes and influencing societal norms, especially in the context of the evolving media ecosystem.

The third crucial aspect is that communication serves as a lens through which we grasp the pivotal relationship between the audience and the producer. Throughout the entirety of this book, we will immerse ourselves in various theories that vividly illustrate the diverse roles assigned to the audience.

In certain perspectives, the audience is depicted as relatively passive and undifferentiated, signifying a belief that the media uniformly influences everyone, with minimal resistance on our part. The theories emphasizing this homogenous view of the audience are explored extensively in this course, including rhetoric, propaganda, cultivation theory, agenda setting, media ecology and media multiplexity, and semiotics.

On the contrary, other theories venture into an exploration of how your interests, comprehension level, attitudes, actions, and beliefs significantly shape your interaction with and understanding of the media. Theories underscoring the more active potential of the audience and exploring the potential for diverse responses include uses and gratifications, standpoint theory, and cultural studies.

As we navigate the chapters that follow, it becomes evident that contemplating effects and their implications has a rich history in communication studies scholarship. Therefore, keeping in mind the positioning of the audience in different theories, whether as an active or passive recipient of messages, emerges as pivotal in comprehending the multifaceted role of media in our day-to-day lives.

Finally, and most importantly from a media literacy perspective communication creates discourse and solidifies power relations. Discourse, broadly defined as “a form of communication, including visual, which conforms to the rules, as well as reflects, a particular social practice or ideological position” (Media Texthack Team, 2014, para. 22), shapes not just what we talk about but how we express those ideas, significantly influencing our thoughts and actions.

French philosopher Michel Foucault (1926–1984) offers a compelling perspective on the intersection of power and communication (Informa UK Limited, n.d., para. 1). According to Foucault, our responses to the world and the meanings we construct are inherently linked to the context of discourse, which holds substantial sway over societal governance and self-governance. He defines discourse as an “institutionalized way of speaking or writing about the reality that defines what can be intelligibly thought and said about the world and what cannot”(Informa UK Limited, n.d., para. 5). In Discipline and Punish, Foucault (2023) traces the evolution of discipline from physical torture to a more insidious form rooted in the fear of surveillance.

For Foucault, power and knowledge are intertwined, with knowledge representing an exercise of power and power as a function of knowledge. Discourse, in his view, is both constraining and productive, establishing boundaries while offering new avenues for thought and action. He emphasizes that the production of discourse is controlled, selected, organized, and redistributed within society, manifesting in various written and oral forms (Informa UK Limited, 2024).

Discourses act as governance mechanisms, prompting theorists to examine inclusion and exclusion within specific discourses, revealing those who wield power to dictate norms and classifications. The pervasive influence of power permeates every theory in this book, fostering reflection on how power dynamics perpetuate privilege and marginalization (Informa UK Limited, 2024).

Media Literacy

This book’s overall purpose is a desire to promote media literacy; it thus concludes by urging an understanding through the lenses of decolonization and de-westernization. The call for new ways of knowing invites readers to negotiate the complexities of our media world with heightened awareness of the interplay between communication, power, and existing societal narratives.

However, it is important to define media literacy is and consider why it matters.

Media literacy is the ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and create media in various forms, including print, digital, audio, and visual formats (Hobbs & Jensen, 2009). In today’s interconnected world, where information is readily accessible and constantly evolving, media literacy has become increasingly vital. It empowers individuals to critically engage with media content, discern credible sources from misinformation, and navigate the complex information ecosystem that surrounds us (Livingstone, 2004).

In essence, media literacy equips individuals with the skills and knowledge needed to accomplish the following:

• Access Information: Media literacy involves knowing how to access a wide range of media sources and platforms effectively (Livingstone, 2004). This includes traditional sources such as newspapers, magazines, and television, as well as digital platforms like social media, websites, and online forums. Recognizing how to navigate these diverse channels enables individuals to stay informed and engaged in today’s rapidly changing world.
• Analyze and Evaluate Content: Media literacy entails the ability to critically analyze and evaluate media content (Potter, 2004). This involves assessing the credibility of sources, identifying bias or misinformation, and exploring the underlying messages and motives behind media messages.
• Decode Media Messages: Media literacy involves deciphering the meanings and intentions conveyed through media messages (Buckingham, 2015). This includes looking at visual and auditory cues, recognizing persuasive techniques, and interpreting symbols and metaphors.
• Create Media: Media literacy also encompasses the ability to create and share media content responsibly (Aufderheide, 1993). This involves contemplating the ethical and legal considerations involved in media production, as well as the potential impact of one’s own media creations on others.

In today’s digital age, where information is abundant and easily accessible, media literacy is more important than ever. Below are several reasons why media literacy matters.

Media literacy promotes critical thinking skills, enabling individuals to question, analyze, and evaluate media content critically (Hobbs, 2010). In a world where misinformation and propaganda abound, these skills are essential  (Livingstone, 2004).

Media literacy empowers individuals to be active participants in the media ecosystem rather than passive consumers (Jenkins et al., 2009). By evaluating how media works and how to critically engage with it, individuals can make informed decisions about the information they consume and share (Buckingham, 2015).

Media literacy is crucial for fostering informed and engaged citizenship (Kahne et al., 2012). In a democracy, where an informed electorate is essential for the functioning of society, media literacy enables individuals to actively participate in civic discourse, hold power accountable, and make informed decisions about public issues (Mihailidis & Thevenin, 2013).

Media literacy helps individuals recognize and resist manipulation by media sources seeking to sway opinions or promote particular agendas (Potter, 2004). Via an acknowledgement of the tactics and strategies used in media messaging, individuals can protect themselves from being misled or influenced by biased or deceptive content (Kellner & Share, 2007).

Media literacy encourages the appreciation of diverse perspectives and voices in media representation (Aufderheide, 1993). Critically examining media content for bias and stereotypes, means individuals can advocate for more inclusive and accurate portrayals of diverse communities (Hobbs & Jensen, 2009).

In conclusion, media literacy is an essential skills within the context of our modern information environment. By fostering critical thinking, empowering individuals, promoting civic engagement, building resilience to manipulation, and advocating for diversity and inclusion in media representation, media literacy plays a crucial role in shaping informed and engaged citizens in today’s digital age.

Through the examination of key concepts, case studies, and practical applications, we aspire to empower you to become discerning consumers and creators of media, capable of navigating the diverse channels of communication with confidence and clarity. Our goal is that by the end of this journey, you will emerge equipped with the critical thinking skills and a stronger awareness of how impactful the media and its messages can be.

Structure of this Book

Within each of the chapters that follow, there is a structured exploration featuring clear learning outcomes designed to guide your exploration of communication theory. A succinct overview of the history of the tradition provides context and milestones embedded in each specific theoretical framework. The examination of foundational concepts comes next and is enriched with contemporary examples and applications. An assessment of the theory’s limitations encourages thoughtful reflection about how and when to use each theory. Each chapter ends with a reference section that equips you with resources for further research.

The book maintains a low-technology approach, deliberately limiting hyperlinks to ensure accessibility and prevent potential broken links in the future.

In sum, this book aims to offer fresh insights into communication theory and its diverse subject-specific approaches, empowering you to perceive yourself, the world, and the media you consume in new and exciting ways.

References

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