3 Theories of Persuasion (by Amanda Williams)
Introduction
Classical rhetoric and theories such as the elaboration likelihood model (ELM) serve as indispensable tools for communication scholars for understanding both audience consumption and the messages being conveyed. Classical rhetoric, as an analytical framework, offers insights into persuasive strategies, the nuances of language, and the cultural contexts that shape communication(Foss, 2009). Put differently, it provides a lens through which scholars can understand the artful elements influencing audience perceptions and responses.
On the other hand, the ELM contributes a psychological perspective by explaining the cognitive processes involved in persuasion, distinguishing between central and peripheral routes. This model aids scholars in tailoring messages to audience characteristics and predicting the likely effectiveness of persuasive appeals (Nickerson, 2023).
Together, classical rhetoric and the ELM provide a powerful lens for exploring persuasion, allowing communication scholars to think critically about message construction and audience reception, ultimately enhancing their ability to both research and promote more effective communication strategies for both professionals and scholars alike.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the chapter you will be able to
- Explain why classical rhetoric and the elaboration likelihood model (ELM) are part of communication studies and linked to persuasion.
- Recognize the historical context of classical rhetoric and ELM.
- Understand the foundational principles of both classical rhetoric and ELM and their respective limitations.
- Use key terms and ideas from classical rhetoric to understand the persuasive appeal of a current advertisement.
History of Persuasion Studies: Some Key Thinkers
Rhetoric originates from the Greek word “Rhetor” which is someone who speaks in public (Kontokanis, 2021). It is thus not surprising that classical rhetorical theory traces its roots to early Greece where the overthrow of a dictator led to land ownership disputes (Foss, 2009). The Greek legal system of the time required individuals to present their cases in court, giving rise to the need for rhetorical skills. Corax, credited with the first formal rhetorical theory, wrote “The Art of Rhetoric” to assist in these disputes, emphasizing the importance of great presentation skills (Foss, 2009). One of Corax’s students (Tisias), then brought rhetorical teaching to Athens and mainland Greece, leading to the emergence of specific teachers interested in teaching rhetoric known as the Sophists (Foss, 2009).
Despite their foundational role in expanding peoples’ knowledge of rhetoric, the Sophists were distrusted in Athens because they charged for services and claimed to teach wisdom, though their knowledge of rhetoric was seen as superficial (Foss, 2009). Aristotle, in his work “Rhetoric,” in contrast to the Sophists, aimed to systematize rhetoric and study it deeply suggesting it is not so much about innate wisdom but rather “finding the available means of persuasion” (Garver, 2018, para.1), presenting the first comprehensive treatise on the subject (Foss, 2009; Griffin, Ledbetter, & Sparks, 2023). More specifically, he introduced the concepts of logos (logical appeal), pathos (emotional appeal), and ethos (ethical appeal) as crucial elements in effective communication (Foss, 2009; Griffin et al., 2023).
Aristotle’s framework provided a foundation for understanding how speakers could strategically appeal to their audience, emphasizing the importance of adapting messages to specific situations and people. His work on rhetoric has endured for centuries and continues to influence communication theory, public speaking, and persuasive strategies today thousands of years later (Foss, 2009; Rapp, 2023).
The Romans, avid borrowers from Greece, embraced and adapted Greek rhetorical theories as they expanded across the Mediterranean (Foss, 2009). As an example, Roman philosopher Cicero built upon Aristotle’s work elaborating on the five canons, or principles, of rhetoric: invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery (Foss, 2009). For the Romans, rhetoric was a vital practical skill in civic matters, needing natural talent, civic engagement, instruction, and practice to reach its full potential (Foss, 2009).
Foss (2009) highlights the evolution of rhetoric across different historical periods, shedding light on its varied roles and influences since its inception. During the era of Roman dictators (150–400 AD), rhetoric took a notable turn away from civic engagement, primarily due to the inherent risks associated with speaking out (Foss, 2009). Instead, emphasis shifted towards style and delivery, overshadowing substantive content.
Moving forward to the subsequent Middle Ages (400–1400 AD), rhetoric maintained its practical significance, finding applications in areas such as letter writing and preaching, as stated in rhetorical treatises (Foss, 2009). Notably, Augustine of Hippo played an importantl role in integrating rhetoric with Christian theology during this period.
The Renaissance marked a significant resurgence of interest in classical rhetoric, emphasizing its enduring relevance and adaptability (Foss, 2009; Palmer, 2020). This period witnessed a revival of ancient rhetorical techniques and principles, contributing to a richer understanding of communication dynamics.
In the 20th century, scholars like Kenneth Burke delved deeper into concepts such as rhetorical identification in his work on the pentad and dramatism (Hansen, 1996). This broadening of scope further underscored the dynamic nature of rhetoric and its continued relevance in comprehending the intricacies of human communication throughout history.
The elaboration likelihood model (ELM), a pivotal theory in persuasion and communication, was developed by social psychologists Richard E. Petty and John Cacioppo in the late 20th century (Nickerson, 2023). ELM provides a dual-process framework for understanding how individuals process persuasive messages. It distinguishes between the central route, involving thoughtful consideration of information, and the peripheral route, relying on peripheral cues (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986). This model has become instrumental in explaining the factors influencing attitude change and has significantly shaped the field of communication research, providing insights into the cognitive processes underlying persuasion (Griffin et al., 2023).
Classical Rhetoric Foundational Concepts
There are several foundational concepts key to classical rhetoric.
Aristotle’s Proofs: Logos, Ethos, and Pathos
At the heart of persuasive communication lie the principles of logos, pathos, and ethos, representing the three pillars of effective persuasion (Griffin et al., 2023).
Logos (meaning “word” or “reason”) ( Lloyd, 2014) is a rhetorical appeal that relies on logic and reason to persuade an audience. In communication, those using logos strive to construct compelling and rational arguments supported by evidence. This involves presenting facts, statistics, expert opinions, and logical reasoning to engage the intellect of the audience. Logos is about building a coherent and persuasive case, guiding the audience through a structured line of thought. Effective use of logos helps establish the speaker as a credible source of information, contributing to a persuasive and intellectually satisfying communication experience (Griffin et al., 2023).
A crucial aspect of constructing logical and persuasive argument, involves the utilization of examples and enthymemes. Examples and enthymemes serve as supporting elements within an argument, providing evidence or reasoning to bolster the central claim.
An example is a specific instance or illustration that demonstrates the validity or applicability of a general statement or principle. It serves to clarify and solidify the argument by offering tangible evidence or scenarios that support the argument’s premise. For instance, citing a case study or providing statistical data can serve as examples within an argument.
On the other hand, an enthymeme is an argumentative statement that is incomplete in structure, often omitting one of its premises or the conclusion. Unlike a fully expressed syllogism, which presents all its components explicitly, an enthymeme relies on the audience to infer the missing premise or conclusion based on context or shared assumptions. Enthymemes are effective in persuasive discourse as they engage the audience in active reasoning, encouraging them to fill in the gaps and arrive at the intended conclusion themselves.
The distinction between an example and an enthymeme lies in the structure and intent of the statement.
A little more on this is below.
When someone provides an example, they present a specific case or instance to illustrate a general idea or concept. The example is usually complete and doesn’t require the audience to infer any unstated premises.
An enthymeme, on the other hand, is a form of argumentation where one or more premises or the conclusion are implied but not explicitly stated. The audience is expected to fill in the missing elements based on shared knowledge, assumptions, or reasoning. It moves from the general idea of concept with the hopes you will connect it to the specific.
One way to understand this is to present an argument using both techniques:
- Example: “When I engage in consistent physical activity, I experience increased energy levels, my mood improves, and I have better sleep.”
In this example, the speaker shares a personal experience without leaving any unstated premises; it’s a straightforward statement.
- Enthymeme: “Regular exercise is crucial for overall health because it contributes to improved cardiovascular health, reduced risk of chronic diseases, increased energy levels, improved mood, and better sleep.”
In this enthymeme, the implied premise is that individuals who engage in regular exercise will experience the mentioned health benefits. This premise is left unstated, encouraging the audience to infer the connection.
Pathos (meaning “suffering” or “experience”) ( Lloyd, 2014) taps into the emotional aspect of persuasion, aiming to evoke feelings and connect with the audience on a deep, emotional level. Communicators employing pathos use powerful language, vivid imagery, and storytelling techniques to create an emotional impact. By appealing to the audience’s emotional range speakers can generate specific feelings.
The emotions described in the table below were considered by Aristotle as powerful tools for persuading an audience and influencing their attitudes and behaviours. The skilled orator, according to Aristotle, could employ these emotions strategically based on the rhetorical situation and the goals of persuasion. Aristotle felt most rhetorical acts manipulated one of these specific sets of emotions (Griffin et. al, 2023; Rapp, 2023).
Table 3.1
Aristotle’s categorization of emotions for pathos
| Emotion | Description |
| Anger vs. Calmness/ Mildness | The emotional spectrum between anger and calmness involves stirring anger in the audience to incite action or promoting a sense of calmness to soothe tensions. |
| Friendliness vs. Hating | The emotional range between friendliness and hating involves creating a sense of camaraderie versus highlighting enmity or hostility to evoke a collective response. |
| Fear vs. Confidence | The emotional contrast between fear and confidence is used to either encourage apprehension in the audience as a motivator for action or to boost confidence and assurance. |
| Indignation vs. Pity | The emotional power of appealing to indignation (outrage) or pity (compassion) to elicit specific emotional responses and influence attitudes. |
| Admiration vs. Envy | The emotional shift between garnering support, or conversely, invoking jealousy to emphasize the desirability of a particular outcome is key here. |
Pathos is particularly powerful in influencing attitudes and behaviours, as it fosters a personal and emotional investment from the audience.
Ethos (meaning “character)” ( Lloyd, 2014) is rooted in the credibility of the speaker. Communicators leveraging ethos seek to establish trust and credibility with their audience.
Griffin et al. (2023) suggest these three characteristics are key to ethos:
- Intelligence rooted in intuitive knowledge shaped by commonly held values rather than solely relying on formal education (i.e. street smarts versus book smarts).
- A virtuous character closely tied to one’s perceived goodness and trustworthiness.
- Goodwill which involves considering whether an individual genuinely prioritizes the audience’s well-being and interests.
By embodying these qualities, speakers enhance their persuasiveness, as listeners are more likely to be receptive to messages from a credible and ethical source. Ethos is crucial in building long-term relationships and fostering a sense of trust between the communicator and the audience (Griffin et al., 2023).
An Example in Practice
The 2018 debut of Nike’s Dream Crazy commercial, which features the controversial NFL player Colin Kaepernick, earned the prestigious 2019 Emmy for Outstanding Commercial. Launched in September 2018 alongside an extensive outdoor and online campaign showcasing the same athlete, the advertisement was a response to Kaepernick’s widely criticized decision to kneel during the US national anthem as a protest against police brutality.
The Nike Dream Crazy commercial features a lineup of accomplished athletes, including LeBron James, Serena Williams, Odell Beckham Jr., Eliud Kipchoge, and others. The ad highlights inspiring stories, such as Megan Blunk’s wheelchair basketball success, 10-year-old wrestler Isaiah Bird born without legs, and Charlie Jabaley’s transformative journey as an Ironman. Other notable appearances include Shaquem Griffin, a football linebacker without a left hand, Canadian soccer star Alphonso Davies, and members of the U.S. Soccer’s Women’s National Team, among others.
The video was produced by Wieden + Kennedy (2018) and can be viewed on their site here.
A review of the script formulated from watching the video is below:
If people say your dreams are crazy
If they laugh at what you think you can do
Good
Stay that way
Because what non-believers fail to understand is that calling a dream crazy is not an insult
It’s a compliment
Don’t try to be the fastest runner in your school
Or the fastest in the world
Be the fastest-ever
Don’t picture yourself wearing OBJ’s jersey
Picture OBJ wearing yours
Don’t settle for homecoming queen or linebacker
Do both
Lose 120 pounds and become an Ironman after beating a brain tumor
Don’t believe you have to be like anybody to be somebody
If you’re born a refugee, don’t let that stop you from playing soccer
For the national team
At age 16
Don’t become the best basketball player on the planet
Be bigger than basketball
Believe in something, even if it means sacrificing everything
When they talk about the greatest team in the history of the sport, make sure it’s your team
If you have only one hand, don’t just watch football
Play it
At the highest level
And if you’re a girl from Compton, don’t just become a tennis player
Become the greatest athlete ever
Yeah, that’s more like it
So don’t ask if your dreams are crazy
Ask if they’re crazy enough. (Wieden + Kennedy, 2018)
Logos
In the realm of logos, the line “Don’t settle for homecoming queen or linebacker. Do both” (Wieden + Kennedy, 2018) strategically urges individuals to transcend conventional roles and excel across diverse domains, highlighting the logical potential for achieving success in multiple areas simultaneously.
There are also some enthymemes in this example.
Premise: “Calling a dream crazy is not an insult” (Wieden + Kennedy, 2018).
The implied premise conveyed through this enthymeme is that labelling a dream as “crazy” should be viewed as a compliment rather than a criticism. This challenges conventional interpretations and suggests that having ambitious and unconventional dreams is commendable, setting individuals apart in a positive light. This perspective aligns with Nike’s brand ethos, where the company positions itself as a supporter and celebrator of those who aspire to greatness. By associating ambitious dreams with praise and admiration, Nike establishes a positive connection with its audience, potentially influencing consumers to choose Nike products as a means of aligning with these values of ambition and achievement.
Premise: “Believe in something, even if it means sacrificing everything” (Wieden + Kennedy, 2018). The implied premise of this enthymeme is that sacrificing everything for a belief is inherently worthwhile. It suggests that committing fully to deeply held convictions brings about a sense of purpose and significance in one’s pursuits. This perspective aligns with Nike’s brand ethos, notably exemplified in their association with athletes like Colin Kaepernick who have made sacrifices for their beliefs. Nike’s commitment to social and personal empowerment resonates with individuals who value meaningful causes. Consequently, consumers who identify with these values may choose Nike products to support a brand that stands for impactful and principled endeavours.
The commercial also uses specific examples such as ”Lose 120 pounds and become an Ironman after beating a brain tumor” (Wieden + Kennedy, 2018) which is based on a real person: Charlie Jabaley, an Ironman who transformed his life by losing 120 pounds and reversing the growth of a tumor (Nga, 2018).
Ethos
Shifting the focus to ethos, the line ”Don’t picture yourself wearing OBJ’s jersey, Picture OBJ wearing yours” (Wieden + Kennedy, 2018) relies on the credibility of a prominent figure (Odell Beckham Jr., a fanout football player) and our awareness of their status as an inspiring athlete. Moreover, its mention in the context of this speech demonstrates goodwill and virtuous character. The speaker wants to encourage listeners to become aspirational figures themselves.
Additionally, the narration by Colin Kaepernick (a famous football star) in the video and the inclusion of sports stars like Serena Williams and LeBron James contribute to their virtuous character by portraying admired qualities, and goodwill through an inspiring message.
Pathos
Transitioning to pathos, the line “If they laugh at what you think you can do, good. Stay that way” (Wieden + Kennedy, 2018) emotionally engages and encourages a deep emotional connection. The message serves as a powerful motivator, urging individuals to turn adversity into a source of confidence and assurance, inspiring them to take action and embrace their capabilities despite external or internal fears.
The analysis of the Nike Dream Crazy commercial underscores the potency of its rhetorical appeals, revealing how they offer fresh perspectives and profound insights. Through an examination of logos, ethos, and pathos, the analysis illuminates how each appeal is strategically wielded to captivate and persuade audiences.
Cicero’s Five Canons of Rhetoric
The traditional canons of rhetoric, as disseminated by the ancient scholar Cicero, offer a systematic framework for constructing persuasive messages that goes even wider than logos, ethos, and pathos and includes them as a key component to invention. The five are reviewed below.
Invention, the first canon, encourages speakers to discover and develop persuasive arguments.
The canon of invention is often thought to involve the following five elements (Silva Rhetoricae, 2016):
- Topics (Topoi): Common themes or categories of arguments that speakers could draw upon to develop their persuasive discourse. These include definitions, comparisons, relationships, circumstances, testimony, and more. By exploring these topics, rhetoricians could generate ideas and arguments for their speeches.
- Stasis: The point of argument or disagreement in a given issue. It involves identifying the central question or controversy that needs to be addressed. There are different levels of stasis, including conjecture (Is it happening?), definition (What is it?), quality (What is its nature?), and policy (What should be done about it?).
- Commonplaces: Rhetorical strategies or themes that are commonly used in various situations. They are broad categories of arguments that can be adapted to different contexts. For example, praising the past, blaming the enemy, and invoking common goals are commonplaces that speakers might use to build their arguments.
- Topical Questions: Rhetors use topical questions to prompt their thinking and guide the development of arguments. These questions can help explore different facets of a topic and generate content for the speech. They are a tool for critical thinking and analysis.
- Argumentation: Invention involves the creation and development of arguments. Rhetors select the most persuasive and relevant arguments to support their case. This includes appeals to logic (logos), credibility (ethos), and emotions (pathos).
In summary, invention as a canon in rhetoric is the creative and strategic process of discovering, developing, and adapting persuasive arguments. It lays the groundwork for a compelling message by exploring relevant topics, tailoring arguments to the audience, and utilizing rhetorical appeals to achieve persuasion.
Arrangement guides the organization and structure of these arguments to enhance their persuasiveness. The six components of arrangement are as follows (Silva Rhetoricae, 2016):
- Introduction
- Background/Statement of Facts
- Division
- Confirmation
- Rebuttal/Refutation
- Conclusion
Today, you can see the legacy of arrangement closely aligns with the expectations of what makes a successful essay.
Style involves the artful use of language and rhetorical devices to add flair and impact to the message.
Tropes and schemes are a part of style. Tropes involve the use of figures of speech, such as metaphor and simile, to convey meaning in a way that deviates from the literal interpretation (Silva Rhetoricae, 2016; Super Summary, n.d.). Schemes, on the other hand, focus on the arrangement of words and phrases for rhetorical effect (Silva Rhetoricae, 2016; Super Summary, n.d.). These linguistic devices enhance the artistry of language, contributing to the overall impact and memorability of a message.
Below is a list of some commonly deployed linguistic devices that are key to style (Silva Rhetoricae, 2016; Super Summary, n.d.).
Table 3.2
Linguistic devices used to create style
| Term | Definition | Example |
| Alliteration | Repetition of initial consonant sound. | “She sells seashells by the seashore.” |
| Anaphora | Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses. | “I have a dream that one day… I have a dream that one day…” |
| Antithesis | The juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, often in parallel structure. | “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times.” |
| Assonance | Repetition of vowel sounds in nearby words. | “The rain in Spain falls mainly on the plain.” |
| Chiasmus | Reversal of grammatical structures in successive phrases. | “Ask not what your country can do for you – ask what you can do for your country.” |
| Epistrophe | Repetition of a word or phrase at the end of successive clauses. | “I believe in you. I trust in you. I have confidence in you.” |
| Hyperbole | Exaggeration for emphasis or effect. | “I’ve told you a million times to clean your room!” |
| Irony | A figure of speech where the intended meaning is different from the literal meaning. Humour is commonly associated with this figure of speech. | “Your hands are as clean as dirt.” |
| Metaphor | An implied comparison between two unlike things without using “like” or “as.” | “Time is a thief.” |
| Onomatopoeia | Use of words that imitate natural sounds. | “The buzzing bees flew around the flowers.” |
| Oxymoron | Combination of contradictory terms for a paradoxical effect. | “Deafening silence.” |
| Paradox | A statement that appears contradictory but reveals a deeper truth. | “Less is more.” |
| Parallelism | Similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or clauses. | “Like father, like son.” |
| Personification | Attributing human characteristics to non-human entities. | “The wind whispered through the trees.” |
| Pun | Humorous play on words. | “I used to be a baker because I kneaded dough.” |
| Repetition | Reiteration of words or phrases for emphasis. | “We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills.” |
| Rhetorical Question | A question is posed for effect rather than to receive an answer. | “Why do we fall? So we can learn to pick ourselves up.” |
| Simile | Comparison between two unlike things using “like” or “as.” | “Her smile was as bright as the sun.” |
| Synecdoche | A figure of speech in which a part represents the whole. | “Mary got some new wheels,” the wheels represent the whole car. |
Memory emphasizes the importance of internalizing the speech or message for effective delivery (Silva Rhetoricae, 2016). This canon centers on the mental preparation and memorization of the speech’s structure, key points, and supporting arguments. While delivery focuses on the external presentation, memory serves as an internal aid to delivery, ensuring a more natural and engaging communication experience. By carefully preparing and rehearsing a speech, a speaker employing effective memory techniques can maintain eye contact, engage the audience confidently, and seamlessly deliver a well-structured and memorable message.
Delivery is about the physical and verbal presentation of the message (Silva Rhetoricae, 2016). Delivery, or pronunciation, encompasses the physical and vocal dimensions of a speech presentation. This canon directs attention to the speaker’s non-verbal communication, emphasizing gestures, facial expressions, posture, and tone of voice. The primary goal of delivery is to enhance the overall impact of the message by engaging the audience on a visual and auditory level. A speaker skilled in effective delivery can establish a strong connection with listeners, capture their attention, and convey the intended meaning with clarity and emphasis. Moreover, delivery plays a crucial role in enhancing the persuasive power of a message, as the speaker’s expressive delivery can evoke emotions, underscore key points, and leave a lasting impression.
These canons collectively form a systematic framework that aids students in creating and delivering messages with clarity, coherence, and persuasiveness.
An Example in Practice
Using the same campaign as the last example in practice, Nike’s Dream Crazy (Wieden + Kennedy, 2018) a more detailed understanding of the canons in practice can emerge. As summarized below:
Invention
- The commercial explores a variety of topics related to personal achievements, challenges, and the pursuit of ambitious dreams. Each individual showcased in the commercial represents a different topic or category that contributes to the overall persuasive discourse.
- The dialogue in the commercial addresses different levels of stasis. For example, it explores the definition of success and challenges conventional expectations (quality stasis). It also touches upon policy stasis by encouraging individuals to aim higher and not settle for traditional roles.
- The commonplaces in the commercial include themes of resilience, determination, and the pursuit of excellence. These broad categories of arguments are adapted to different contexts, creating a universal message that resonates with diverse audiences.
- The dialogue prompts thinking and critical analysis through topical questions. For instance, it encourages individuals to ask themselves if their dreams are crazy enough, guiding the development of arguments and inspiring a deeper exploration of personal aspirations.
- The entire commercial demonstrates the invention canon as it involves the creation and development of arguments. The rhetors (in this case, Nike) strategically select and showcase persuasive and relevant arguments, employing appeals to logic (logos), credibility (ethos), and emotions (pathos) to inspire and motivate the audience.
Arrangement
- The commercial begins with an introduction that sets the tone by addressing the audience with phrases like “If people say your dreams are crazy” and “Good. Stay that way” (Wieden + Kennedy, 2018). This opening captures attention and establishes the central theme of defying societal expectations.
- While the commercial does not provide a detailed background in the traditional sense, it introduces various individuals with diverse backgrounds and achievements. Each person’s story contributes to the overall narrative of overcoming challenges and pursuing ambitious dreams.
- The commercial divides its message into different segments, each featuring a different individual with a unique story. This division helps in showcasing various perspectives and narratives, contributing to the overall theme of diversity in aspirations.
- The confirmation stage involves presenting and developing arguments to support the thesis. In the commercial, the confirmation is evident as it portrays individuals achieving remarkable feats, reinforcing the idea that ambitious dreams are worth pursuing.
- While not explicitly featuring a rebuttal, the commercial indirectly addresses potential skepticism or criticism by encouraging individuals to stay true to their dreams even in the face of challenges or doubters.
- The commercial concludes with a powerful message, encouraging individuals not to ask if their dreams are crazy but to ask if they’re crazy enough. This concluding statement leaves a lasting impression and reinforces the overarching theme of pursuing audacious goals.
Style
Some great examples of style are present:
- Parallelism: The repetition of similar grammatical structures, as seen in phrases like “Don’t try to be… Or the fastest in the world. Be the fastest ever,” (Wieden + Kennedy, 2018) adds rhythm and emphasis to the message.
- Antithesis: Contrasting ideas are presented for emphasis, such as “Don’t settle for homecoming queen or linebacker. Do both.” This creates a sense of balance and highlights the juxtaposition of seemingly conflicting roles.
- Anaphora: The repetition of the word “Don’t” at the beginning of multiple sentences (e.g., “Don’t picture yourself… Don’t settle for… Don’t believe…”) serves to emphasize each piece of advice and creates a rhythmic effect.
- Metaphor: The statement “calling a dream crazy is not an insult, It’s a compliment” (Wieden + Kennedy, 2018) uses metaphorical language to reframe the perception of having ambitious dreams, enhancing the emotional impact of the message.
- Alliteration: The repetition of the ”b” sound in “Be bigger than basketball” (Wieden + Kennedy, 2018) adds a phonetic quality to the statement, making it more memorable and impactful.
- Rhetorical Question: The closing statement, “So don’t ask if your dreams are crazy, Ask if they’re crazy enough,” (Wieden + Kennedy, 2018) employs a rhetorical question to engage the reader and prompt reflection, reinforcing the motivational theme.
Delivery & Memory
- The commercial narration demonstrates good memory (natural and engaging presence due to the internal preparation of the orator), it is narrated smoothly and edited so there are no breaks in the script. If we could see the narrator we would also look to maintain eye contact.
- Delivery encompasses the physical and verbal presentation of the message. In the commercial, delivery is evident through the visual and auditory elements. The use of music, impactful visuals, and the emotional delivery of the narrator contribute to the overall effectiveness of the message, engaging the audience on both visual and auditory levels.
These foundational principles collectively offer a toolkit of sorts, empowering students to navigate rhetorica and emerge as skilled communicators capable of influencing and persuading diverse audiences.
Limitations
Classical rhetoric is not without its limitations. Firstly, there is an inclination toward simplification that tends to remove the rich context of classical rhetoric, reducing it to a collection of rules, dictums, lists, and formulae (Griffin et al., 2023; Welch, 2007). This oversimplification not only diminishes the richness inherent in the original context of classical rhetoric but also runs the risk of overlooking the deep understanding that emerges from evluating the relationship between language, culture, and context.
Cultural variations present another challenge for traditional rhetorical theories. These theories are often grounded in Western traditions, and their applicability to non-Western or diverse cultural contexts may be limited. Communication norms and values may differ, making the application of traditional rhetorical frameworks (such as the emotions described in pathos by Aristotle) less straightforward in these cultural settings (Foss, 2009).
Finally, the awareness that Greek rhetorical traditions were tailored for the privileged elite in ancient Greece, specifically educated Athenian men with access to the public domain, has sparked critique (Foss, 2009). Modern theorists posit that the characteristics of the speaker inherently shape distinct rhetorics. Studies on African American, Latino/a and LGBTQIA+ rhetors aim to comprehend how the perspective of the speaker influences the produced rhetorics (Foss, 2009). Furthermore, theories have arisen which explore how perspective influences the delivery and reception of messages that may go beyond what ethos currently encompasses (Foss, 2009).
Despite these limitations, rhetoric remains a valuable tool for understanding communication strategies and historical development. Addressing these critiques involves integrating insights from various communication theories and adapting them to diverse contexts.
ELM and its benefits to understanding persuasion
The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) is a psychological theory of persuasion developed by Richard E. Petty and John Cacioppo (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986).
At its core, the ELM proposes two distinct routes through which individuals process persuasive messages: the central route and the peripheral route. The central route involves thoughtful consideration and cognitive elaboration on the content of the message (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986). In contrast, the peripheral route relies on cues external to the message (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986).
The model posits that the route individuals take is influenced by their motivation and ability to engage with the message. When motivation and ability are high, individuals are more likely to take the central route, leading to lasting attitude change (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986). Conversely, under low motivation or ability, the peripheral route is more probable (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986).
The central route to persuasion involves a deep and systematic processing of the message content. Individuals who engage in the central route carefully evaluate the arguments presented, considering factors such as evidence, logic, and relevance. To facilitate this process, several key elements are utilized, including
- Target Audience Analysis: This involves understanding the characteristics, preferences, and beliefs of the intended audience to tailor persuasive messages effectively.
- Argument Quality: The strength and persuasiveness of the arguments presented within the message significantly influence individuals processing information through the central route.
- Message Consistency: Consistency in the message content and alignment with the audience’s existing beliefs and attitudes enhance persuasiveness.
- Source Credibility: The perceived expertise and trustworthiness of the source delivering the message impact its effectiveness in persuading individuals via the central route.
- Emotional Appeals: While less prominent in the central route compared to the peripheral route, carefully crafted emotional appeals can complement logical arguments and enhance persuasive outcomes.
Understanding these elements helps state how individuals process information and make decisions when exposed to persuasive messages through the central route.
In contrast to the central route, the peripheral route involves a more superficial and heuristic-based processing of persuasive messages. Individuals utilizing the peripheral route may rely on cues such as superficial attractiveness, celebrity endorsements, or catchy slogans to form attitudes and make decisions. Several factors contribute to persuasion through the peripheral route, including
Peripheral cues: These are external stimuli or cues that individuals use as shortcuts to form judgments or attitudes without engaging in deep cognitive processing.
Heuristics: Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that individuals employ to simplify decision-making processes without critically evaluating the message content.
Emotional appeals: Emotional responses triggered by peripheral cues or superficial aspects of the message can influence attitudes and behaviours under the peripheral route.
Source attractiveness: The physical attractiveness or likability of the source delivering the message can serve as a persuasive cue under the peripheral route.
Understanding the interplay between these factors provides insight into how individuals are persuaded through peripheral processing.
The ELM provides a framework for understanding how different factors, including message content, source credibility, and audience characteristics, interact to shape the persuasion process. This dual-process model is widely applied in communication research to analyze the intricacies of attitude change and message effectiveness.
An Example in Practice
Let’s consider how the elaboration likelihood model (ELM) can be applied to promote a specific product: a new line of eco-friendly water bottles. Imagine a company, GreenSip, launching this innovative product and aiming to persuade consumers to choose their water bottles over competitors’ offerings. Applying ELM, the communication strategy would integrate both central and peripheral routes to persuasion to effectively engage diverse audiences.
Central Route
Target audience analysis: GreenSip begins by identifying the key values and motivations of its target audience regarding environmental sustainability. They conduct market research to understand consumers’ preferences, concerns, and priorities related to eco-friendly products, particularly reusable water bottles.
Message development: GreenSip crafts a message that emphasizes the eco-friendly features of their water bottles. They highlight the use of sustainable materials, such as BPA-free recycled plastic or stainless steel, and emphasize the product’s durability and long-term environmental benefits.
Channel selection: To disseminate detailed information about their eco-friendly water bottles, GreenSip chooses communication channels that facilitate in-depth engagement. They leverage their website to provide product specifications, environmental impact assessments, and user testimonials. Additionally, they distribute informative brochures in eco-conscious stores and host educational webinars on sustainable living.
Engagement strategies: GreenSip encourages active participation and engagement with its message by launching interactive online campaigns. They create quizzes and surveys on their website to gauge consumers’ environmental awareness and preferences. Social media platforms are utilized to foster discussions and share user-generated content showcasing the benefits of using GreenSip water bottles.
Peripheral Route
Source credibility: To enhance the perceived credibility of their eco-friendly water bottles, GreenSip collaborates with well-known environmental organizations, such as the World Wildlife Fund or the Surfrider Foundation. They feature endorsements from environmental activists and influencers who align with their brand values, reinforcing trust and authenticity.
Aesthetics and emotional appeal: GreenSip designs visually appealing marketing materials that evoke positive emotions related to sustainability and healthy living. Their advertisements showcase lush green landscapes and crystal-clear waters, invoking a sense of environmental consciousness and well-being associated with using their water bottles.
Slogan and branding: GreenSip develops a memorable slogan, “Hydrate with Purpose,” encapsulating their commitment to sustainability and encouraging consumers to make environmentally conscious choices. Their branding incorporates nature-inspired imagery and earthy tones, reinforcing their eco-friendly ethos.
Promotional events: To further align their product with environmental causes, GreenSip partners with local conservation initiatives and organizes beach clean-up events or tree-planting campaigns. They sponsor eco-friendly festivals and participate in sustainability expos to showcase their water bottles’ environmental benefits.
By integrating both central and peripheral routes to persuasion in their communication strategy, GreenSip effectively engages consumers and influences their attitudes and behaviours towards choosing eco-friendly water bottles for their hydration needs.
By considering both routes, the company maximizes its persuasive efforts. The central route targets consumers who are motivated and capable of engaging deeply with information, ensuring a solid and enduring attitude change. While at the same time, the peripheral route caters to those who might be swayed by peripheral cues such as aesthetics, endorsements, or emotional appeals. This dual-pronged approach acknowledges the diversity in audience processing styles, increasing the likelihood of successfully persuading a broad range of consumers.
Limitations
ELM is also not without its limitations. Key among them are that ELM may oversimplify the complexity of persuasion by dividing it into just two routes: central and peripheral. This binary distinction might not capture the complexities of how people process persuasive messages in real-world settings making it difficult to test (Griffin et al., 2023). Another critique is that while ELM provides a framework for understanding persuasion, it sometimes lacks the ability to predict which route a person will take in processing a message. This is because individual differences and situational factors can influence the route of persuasion unpredictably (Griffin et al., 2023). Finally, the effectiveness of the central and peripheral routes can vary significantly depending on the context. ELM does not always account for how different contexts might affect the persuasion process, leading to limitations in its applicability across diverse settings (Griffin et al., 2023). Despite these limitations, the ELM remains a foundational theory in the study of persuasion, providing insights into how individuals process persuasive messages.
Connections to Why We Study Communications
Studying classical rhetoric within communication theory resonates with the foundational reasons outlined in Chapter 1 for studying communication. Firstly, classical rhetoric emphasizes the art of persuasion and effective communication strategies, providing valuable insights into how messages are crafted to influence audiences. Secondly, it underscores the importance of understanding audience dynamics and adapting messages to different rhetorical situations, enhancing communication effectiveness in diverse contexts. Thirdly, classical rhetoric highlights the significance of ethical communication practices, encouraging critical reflection on the ethical implications of persuasive techniques and discourse. Finally, this perspective on rhetoric facilitates the analysis of power dynamics and discourse within society, promoting a deeper understanding of how language shapes social relations and structures.
Exploring the ELM within communication theory aligns with the fundamental reasons outlined in Chapter 1 for studying communication. Firstly, ELM emphasizes the cognitive processes underlying persuasion, shedding light on how individuals engage with and process persuasive messages. Understanding these processes enhances our ability to craft more persuasive and impactful communication strategies. Secondly, ELM underscores the importance of audience motivation and cognitive capacity in determining the effectiveness of persuasive appeals, providing insights into audience reception and response. Thirdly, this model encourages critical evaluation of message content and argument quality, fostering a deeper appreciation for persuasive communication. Finally, ELM facilitates the analysis of power dynamics in persuasion, highlighting how message sources and contexts influence audience attitudes and behaviours.
In sum, our exploration of classical rhetoric and the ELM underscores their relevance for understanding the multifaceted nature of communication. By examining these theoretical frameworks, we gain valuable insights into the art of persuasion, audience dynamics, ethical communication practices, and power relations within society. Moreover, these perspectives provide practical tools for enhancing communication effectiveness, fostering civic engagement, and promoting ethical discourse in diverse contexts.
Summary
This chapter has provided an in-depth exploration of core theories of persuasion within communication studies, focusing particularly on classical rhetoric and the elaboration likelihood model. Our objective has been to offer a more detailed understanding of these theories, explaining their historical significance and practical applications in analyzing contemporary persuasive artifacts.
Here are the main chapter takeways:
- By merging classical rhetoric with the ELM, you gain access to a robust framework for comprehending persuasive strategies and understanding audience responses. This synthesis allows for an examination of both the content of persuasive messages and the cognitive processes underlying audience engagement.
- Understanding Aristotle’s articulation of logos, pathos, and ethos, alongside Cicero’s delineation of canons, provides students with a historical context for classical rhetoric and ELM, reinforcing their relevance in contemporary communication studies.
- Incorporating the ELM into the study of rhetoric enhances students’ insights into audience engagement dynamics, enabling them to recognize the foundational principles of both classical rhetoric and ELM, while also understanding their respective limitations.
- By integrating rhetoric’s artful elements with insights from psychology, students gain practical tools for creating compelling messages that resonate with contemporary audiences, allowing them to use key terms and ideas from classical rhetoric to understand the persuasive appeal of an advertisement and navigate the complexities of persuasive communication in various contexts.
In sum, these theories serve as invaluable resources for you, providing you with the analytical tools and practical insights needed to navigate the multifaceted landscape of persuasive communication effectively. Armed with this knowledge, you are empowered to craft messages that inform, inspire, and persuade, ultimately driving meaningful engagement and action among your intended audiences.
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