7 Cultivation Theory and Uses and Gratifications Theory (by Amanda Williams)
Introduction
In today’s digital age, media profoundly shapes our perceptions and behaviours, making understanding media effects crucial for navigating our media-saturated world. Media effect research examines how media exposure influences individuals’ attitudes, behaviours, and perceptions.
One extreme is the magic bullet or hypodermic needle model, which suggests that media messages have a direct and powerful influence on audiences, similar to a bullet shot from a gun (Carratalá, 2020). This perspective emphasizes the significant impact media is thought to have on shaping public opinion and behavior. Cultivation theory, proposed by Gerbner (1972), offers a more nuanced view by suggesting that prolonged exposure to media content gradually shapes our perceptions of reality, leading to a shared worldview influenced by media narratives. While this theory acknowledges the media’s role in shaping perceptions, it also recognizes that this influence occurs over time and through cumulative exposure.
In contrast, uses and gratifications theory, developed by Katz, Blumler, and Gurevitch (1973), highlights the active role of individuals in selecting and interpreting media content to meet their needs, such as for entertainment, information, social interaction, or identity reinforcement. This approach emphasizes audience agency, focusing on how people actively choose media that aligns with their preferences and objectives. As Katz (1959) puts it, the critical question is not “What do the media do to people?” but “What do people do with the media?”
While cultivation theory focuses on the powerful influence of media on audiences, with relatively less emphasis on audience agency, uses and gratifications theory acknowledges the active role of audiences in selecting and interpreting media content based on their own needs and preferences.
Throughout this chapter, we’ll explore how cultivation theory and uses and gratifications theory help us understand the impact of media on individuals and society, from shaping perceptions to fulfilling needs. We’ll also consider examples in practice and some of the key limitations of these theories in explaining media effects.
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to
- Recognize the historical context and development of cultivation theory and uses and gratifications theory, and their relationship within communication scholarship.
- Describe the foundational principles of cultivation theory and uses and gratifications theory, focusing on their respective frameworks and key concepts.
- Analyze contemporary examples through the lens of cultivation theory and uses and gratifications theory, highlighting their applicability and relevance in understanding media effects.
- Discuss potential limitations and critiques of cultivation theory and uses and gratifications theory.
History of Cultivation Theory and Uses and Gratifications and Key Thinkers
Cultivation theory, pioneered by George Gerbner in the late 1960s, stands as a cornerstone of media effects research, emerging from the broader Cultural Indicators Project aimed at examining prevalent representations on television and assessing their impact on audience perceptions (Signorielli, 2023). Gerbner (1972) defined violence as “the overt expression of physical force against others or self, or the compelling of action against one’s will on pain of being hurt or killed” (p. 31), and his project amassed an extensive database covering thousands of television programs and characters (Signorielli, 2023).
As noted in the introduction, cultivation theory does not propose a linear effect but instead suggests a dynamic process of interaction between media messages and contexts over time (Morgan, 2008). Key findings from Gerbner’s work revealed the over-representation of well-off, young, white males on television, with women outnumbered and depicted with narrower opportunities. Additionally, crime is significantly exaggerated on TV, with dominant white males more likely to commit violence while minorities and females are often victims (Morgan, 2008).
In contrast, media uses and gratifications (UGT) theory, dating back to the 1940s, focuses on why and how individuals use mass media to fulfill their needs (Sherry & Boyan, 2008). Formalized in the 1970s by Katz, Blumler, and Gurevitch (1973), UGT theory emphasizes the active role of audiences in selecting media content based on their motivations and interests. Key premises include the diverse needs individuals seek to fulfill through media consumption, the active role of audiences in interpreting media messages, and the competition between media and other sources of gratification (Blumler & Katz, 1974).
Despite their differing origins and emphases, both cultivation theory and uses and gratifications theory contribute significantly to our understanding of media effects. Cultivation theory highlights the long-term impact of media exposure on shaping perceptions of reality, while uses and gratifications theory underscores the active engagement of audiences in media consumption. Together, these theories provide valuable insights into the complex dynamics of media influence on individuals and society, contributing to our ability to navigate the media-saturated world of today.
Foundational Concepts
Three-Prong Research Approach
Cultivation theory, developed by Gerbner (1973), encompasses a three-pronged research approach that offers valuable insights into the influence of media on individuals and society.
Firstly, institutional process analysis scrutinizes the ownership, control, and organizational structure of media outlets, revealing how corporate interests and profit motives shape the content presented to audiences. By examining ownership patterns and regulatory policies, this analysis sheds light on power dynamics within the media industry, highlighting issues related to media diversity, access, and representation.
Secondly, message system analysis focuses on recurring patterns and themes in media content, uncovering underlying values and assumptions embedded within narratives. This component delves into the portrayal of social reality, including representations of violence, crime, gender roles, and other social issues. By analyzing the prevalence and framing of specific themes across different media platforms, researchers can discern patterns of representation and identify the values and ideologies conveyed through media narratives.
Finally, cultivation analysis studies the long-term effects of media exposure on individuals’ perceptions and beliefs. It compares the perceptions of heavy media consumers with those of light consumers or non-viewers to understand the extent to which media exposure influences interpretations of societal issues, attitudes towards crime, politics, and social institutions.
Through this comprehensive framework, cultivation theory provides insights into how media shapes individuals’ perceptions and beliefs about the world by exploring the interplay between institutional structures, media content, and audience reception.
An Example in Practice
Let’s explore how Gerbner’s (1973) three-prong approach applies to the portrayal of gender roles in television programming.
Institutional analysis focuses on the ownership and control of media outlets. For example, a major television network owned by a large media conglomerate may prioritize programming that aligns with prevailing societal norms or appeals to its target demographic. This influences the types of gender representations disseminated to the public.
Message system analysis examines recurring patterns and themes in media content. Gender roles in television often adhere to stereotypes, with women depicted as caregivers or love interests, and men as breadwinners or action heroes. These representations can reinforce traditional gender norms, and the portrayal of gender may vary across different genres of programming.
Cultivation analysis explores the long-term effects of media exposure on individuals’ perceptions and beliefs. Heavy viewers of television programming may internalize these gender roles, accepting them as reflective of reality. Consequently, they may develop attitudes and beliefs about gender that align with these portrayals, contributing to the perpetuation of gender stereotypes and inequalities in society.
Gerbner’s three-prong approach helps analyze how institutional structures, the message system of gender representation, and the long-term effects of media exposure contribute to the cultivation of shared perceptions and beliefs about gender roles in television programming.
Mainstreaming
Mainstreaming, a key concept from Gerbner’s work, refers to the homogenization of perceptions and attitudes among individuals within a society due to heavy exposure to media content (Shanahan & Morgan, 1999). This phenomenon occurs when repeated portrayals of themes, values, or ideologies in media programming influence viewers to adopt these perspectives as commonly held reality (Shanahan & Morgan, 1999). For instance, frequent depictions of violence or stereotypes in television programs can shape viewers’ perceptions of societal norms and behaviours, leading to a convergence of viewpoints among diverse audience groups.
An Example in Practice
An example of mainstreaming in practice comes from Good’s (2009) study on environmentalists and television consumption. Good demonstrated that environmentalists who watch fictional television experience a shift in their belief system, aligning more closely with the general public over time. As these individuals consume more fictional TV content, their environmental concerns decrease, mirroring attitudes found in the broader population. Similarly, members of the general public also exhibit decreased environmental concern with increased television viewing. This phenomenon mirrors the broader concept of mainstreaming, where repeated exposure to media messages shapes individuals’ perceptions and beliefs to match those of the majority.
Resonance
Resonance, as proposed by Gerbner et al. (1980), suggests that viewers whose life experiences align with TV portrayals will be most influenced by television viewing. For example, depictions of a mean and violent world should particularly “resonate” for those who have direct experience with crime and violence, effectively providing a “double dose of the television message and significantly boosting cultivation” (Gerbner et al., 1980, p. 15).
An Example in Practice
To examine resonance, Shrum and Bischak (2001) conducted a study on how people perceive the risk of crime based on their television viewing habits and personal experiences. They surveyed 158 participants to estimate the risk of violent crime in three scenarios: societal crime risk, personal crime risk in their neighbourhood, and personal crime risk in New York City. The researchers found that participants who watched more TV tended to perceive higher societal crime risk and personal crime risk in New York City, but not in their neighbourhood. This relationship was particularly strong for participants who had directly experienced crime in their daily lives. This finding resonates with Gerbner’s concept of resonance, suggesting that TV portrayals of crime have a greater impact on those who have experienced crime firsthand. These viewers experience a greater impact as their personal experiences of crime amplify the effect of television portrayals on their perceptions of crime risk.
Mean World Syndrome
Mean world syndrome, as described by Gerbner (1998), refers to the phenomenon where heavy viewers of television, typically those who watch more than four hours a day, develop a perception of the world as more violent than it is. This skewed perception is primarily influenced by the high levels of violence depicted in television programs, leading to the formation of certain attitudes and beliefs about the world.
Gerbner (1998) outlines four typical perspectives that characterize the mindset of heavy viewers affected by the mean-world syndrome. Firstly, these viewers tend to overestimate their chances of involvement in violence, believing their risk to be much higher than the actual statistics suggest. Secondly, they often exhibit a heightened fear of walking alone at night, particularly influenced by the portrayal of nighttime attacks in television programs, which disproportionately affects women. Thirdly, heavy viewers perceive law enforcement as more active and aggressive, as depicted by frequent police crackdowns and confrontations with criminals portrayed on television. Lastly, heavy viewers tend to lack trust and become suspicious and cynical, believing that others are selfish or have ulterior motives. This paranoia can manifest in behaviours such as eavesdropping on conversations at night out of fear that something nefarious is taking place. Such mistrust stems from their exposure to various media narratives that emphasize danger and deceit in society.
Overall, mean world syndrome illustrates how prolonged exposure to violent media content can distort individuals’ perceptions of reality, leading to heightened fear, distrust, and cynicism among heavy viewers.
An Example in Practice
Mohamed (2007) explores how various elements in the Law and Order episode “Or Just Look Like One,” contribute to mean world syndrome. This episode follows a typical storyline of the New York Special Victims Unit investigating a violent crime, in this case, the rape and beating of a 16-year-old model during a late-night photo shoot. He argues that the episode illustrates the principles of cultivation theory by depicting scenarios that evoke fear and mistrust among viewers. Firstly, the innocence of the victim, combined with the casual setting of a photo shoot, instills fear in viewers about similar violence occurring in everyday situations (Mohammed, 2007). Secondly, the late-night setting of the photo shoot reinforces viewers’ apprehension of walking alone at night, as they contemplate the potential dangers faced by the victims (Mohammed, 2007). Thirdly, the portrayal of aggressive police tactics and the presumption of guilt of all captured criminals contribute to a distorted perception of police activity, reinforcing the belief in a dangerous world (Mohammed, 2007). Additionally, the episode fosters a general mistrust of people, as viewers suspect ulterior motives behind the victim’s death and the actions of other characters (Mohammed, 2007).
Overall, Mohammed (2007) suggests the exaggerated portrayal of crime and violence in Law and Order and similar shows can distort viewers’ perceptions, leading them to believe that such crimes are common occurrences in real life. This aligns with Gerbner’s cultivation theory, which suggests that prolonged exposure to violent media can shape individuals’ beliefs and attitudes about the world, making them view it as more dangerous than it is.
So far we have focused on cultivation theory but uses and gratifications theory also has concepts of note.
Typologies of Motives
Over the past 50 years, researchers in the field of uses and gratifications have developed a typology to categorize the motives people report for engaging with media. This typology serves as a classification scheme, aiming to organize the diverse reasons for media exposure into a more manageable set of categories. Through this process, researchers have compiled various lists of motives that individuals report, helping to identify major reasons for consuming media content.
Drawing on the work of Rubin (1981), Griffin, Ledbetter, and Sparks (2003) identified eight motivations that can account for most explanations people give for why they watch television. These motivations are summarized in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1
UGT typology adopted from Rubin (1981)
| Measure | Definition |
| Passing Time | Engaging with media to fill idle moments or alleviate boredom without a specific goal or purpose. |
| Companionship | Using media as a form of virtual companionship, especially when feeling lonely or seeking social connection. |
| Escape | Seeking refuge from real-life stressors or unpleasant situations by immersing oneself in media content that provides a temporary distraction or fantasy world. |
| Enjoyment | Consuming media purely for the pleasure and satisfaction it provides, without any particular goal or motive beyond enjoyment itself. |
| Social Interaction | Using media as a means to connect with others, whether through online social networks, multiplayer gaming, or engaging in shared media experiences. |
| Relaxation | Utilizing media to unwind, destress, or achieve a state of calmness and tranquillity. |
| Information | Seeking out media content to acquire knowledge, stay informed, or satisfy curiosity about various topics, events, or current affairs. |
| Excitement | Engaging with media that elicits feelings of excitement, thrill, or adrenaline rush, such as action-packed movies, sports events, or video games. |
Each category within Rubin’s (1981) typology represents a distinct aspect of media consumption, providing a relatively straightforward framework for understanding why people engage with media. However, each category can also be further subdivided to capture more specific motivations and behaviours.
Rubin (1981) asserts that his typology covers the majority of explanations people offer for their media consumption habits. By organizing these explanations into distinct categories, Rubin’s typology offers a comprehensive framework for understanding the diverse reasons behind media engagement.
More recently, Sundar and Limperos (2013) offer a significant contribution to the field of uses-and-gratifications research by addressing the need for conceptual and methodological refinement in studying emergent media. Their work challenges existing approaches that rely on measures designed for older media to capture gratifications from newer media, highlighting the need for more nuanced measures tailored to the unique affordances of new technology. By proposing that the features of media technology itself can shape user needs and give rise to new and distinctive gratifications, Sundar and Limperos (2013) pave the way for a deeper understanding of how people engage with emerging forms of media. Their revised typology is summarized in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2
UGT typology for new media proposed by Sundar and Limperos (2013)
| Measure | Definition |
| Modality | Refers to the extent to which the media experience feels real or lifelike. It encompasses factors such as the realism of the content, the degree to which it simulates face-to-face communication, and the immersive quality of the experience. |
| Coolness | Indicates the perceived uniqueness, distinctiveness, and style of the media technology or content. It reflects how trendy, innovative, or fashionable the media is perceived to be. |
| Novelty | Refers to the perceived newness or freshness of the media technology or content. It includes aspects such as technological innovation, interface design, and the overall uniqueness of the experience. |
| Being There | Reflects the ability of the media to create a sense of presence or immersion, allowing users to feel as if they are physically present in distant environments or experiencing events firsthand. |
| Agency | Involves the empowerment of users to assert their identity, express their opinions, and interact with others through the media. It includes features that enable users to have a voice, influence, and control over their media experience. |
| Community Building | Indicates the ability of the media to facilitate social connections, expand social networks, and foster a sense of belonging to a larger community. |
| Filtering/Tailoring | Refers to the ability of users to customize their media experience by setting preferences, avoiding unwanted content, and sorting through information to find what is relevant to them. |
| Interactivity | Reflects the degree to which users can actively engage with and manipulate the media content. It includes features that enable users to perform tasks, specify preferences, and interact with the system in meaningful ways. |
| Activity | Indicates the level of user engagement and involvement during media use. It reflects whether the interaction is active or passive, and the extent to which users feel stimulated and engaged. |
| Responsiveness | Refers to the system’s ability to react promptly and effectively to user commands, requests, and needs. It includes features that provide feedback, anticipate user actions, and respond appropriately. |
| Dynamic Control | Reflects the degree of user control and customization over the media interface and experience. It includes features that allow users to adjust settings, personalize the interface, and influence how the media looks and works. |
| Navigability | Indicates the ease with which users can navigate and explore the media content and interface. It includes features such as browsing options, navigation aids, and the overall user-friendliness of the system. |
| Play/Fun | Reflects the enjoyment and entertainment value of the media experience. It includes aspects such as the ability to explore, play, and escape into a different world through the media. |
An Example in Practice
TikTok has revolutionized the way people consume and interact with media, offering a platform that is both entertaining and engaging. Understanding the dimensions that contribute to the appeal and effectiveness of TikTok is essential for creators, marketers, and users alike. By using Sundar and Limperos’s (2013) typology, we can gain insights into what makes TikTok unique and why it has become such a popular platform worldwide.
Dimensions of TikTok experience using a UGT new media typology
- Realism: Evaluate the visual and auditory authenticity of videos, such as high-definition resolution, natural sound quality, and lifelike special effects.
- Coolness: Assess the distinctiveness and innovation of trends, like unique video editing styles, creative filters, and the adoption of new music tracks.
- Novelty: Determine the incorporation of new content formats (e.g., AR effects, interactive polls) and the freshness of emerging trends that differentiate TikTok from other platforms.
- Being There: Measure the ability to create a sense of physical presence in live-streamed events or immersive VR experiences, making users feel as if they are attending concerts or exploring new places in real-time.
- Agency: Evaluate features that empower users to create and share personalized content, like customizable profile settings, duet functions, and tools for detailed video editing.
- Community Building: Assess how effectively TikTok fosters connections through community features such as hashtag challenges, collaborative projects, and local event promotions.
- Filtering/Tailoring: Measure users’ ability to customize their feed through features like content filters, personalized recommendations, and options to hide or block specific types of content.
- Interactivity: Evaluate interactive elements like comment threads, live-stream reactions, and interactive stickers that allow users to engage directly with content and other users.
- Activity: Assess engagement metrics such as average session duration, frequency of content interaction (likes, shares, comments), and participation in trends and challenges.
- Responsiveness: Measure the speed and accuracy of the platform’s response to user inputs, including real-time feedback during live streams, quick loading times, and adaptive content suggestions.
- Dynamic Control: Evaluate the extent of user control over the interface, such as rearranging the layout, adjusting notification settings, and customizing content categories.
- Navigability: Measure the ease of finding and exploring content through intuitive navigation aids like search functions, category tabs, and seamless scrolling features.
- Play/Fun: Assess the entertainment value by evaluating features that promote creativity and enjoyment, such as gamified challenges, humorous filters, and engaging mini-games.
The dimensions outlined above provide a comprehensive overview of the TikTok experience and highlight its multifaceted nature. From its immersive modality to its dynamic control and navigability, TikTok offers users a range of features and functionalities that contribute to its appeal. Its ability to foster community building, interactivity, and playfulness makes it more than just a social media platform—it’s a cultural phenomenon. As TikTok continues to evolve and shape digital culture, understanding these dimensions will be crucial for maximizing its potential as a creative and social outlet.
Nevertheless, The Uses and Gratifications (U&G) theory primarily focuses on understanding why individuals actively seek out specific media to satisfy various needs and desires. The theory highlights the positive and motivational aspects of media consumption, emphasizing how media fulfills users’ informational, personal, social, and entertainment needs. This focus often results in less attention being given to the negative dimensions of media use.
Some clear ones that emerge for Tik-tok include:
- Addiction: Assess the potential for excessive usage and compulsive engagement, leading to negative impacts on time management and daily routines.
- Privacy Concerns: Evaluate the risks related to data security and user privacy, such as unauthorized data collection, sharing personal information, and vulnerabilities to hacking.
- Misinformation: Measure the spread of false or misleading information through viral trends, unverified content, and lack of content moderation.
- Cyberbullying: Assess the prevalence and impact of harassment, bullying, and negative interactions among users, including hate speech and trolling.
- Inappropriate Content: Evaluate the presence of explicit, harmful, or age-inappropriate content that may be accessible to younger users.
- Negative Social Comparison: Measure the effects of users comparing themselves negatively to others, leading to issues like decreased self-esteem, body image concerns, and mental health challenges.
- Algorithmic Bias: Assess the presence of biases in content recommendations that may marginalize certain groups or reinforce stereotypes.
- Over-commercialization: Evaluate the extent to which advertisements and sponsored content may detract from the user experience and authenticity of the platform.
- Content Overload: Measure the overwhelm users may feel due to the sheer volume of content, making it difficult to find high-quality or relevant information.
- Mental Health Impact: Assess the broader mental health implications of prolonged usage, such as anxiety, depression, and stress induced by the platform’s dynamics.
Considering these negative dimensions is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of the impacts of TikTok on its users.
Parasocial Interaction & Relationship
Along with typologies, uses and gratifications research sometimes explores the value of parasocial interactions and relationships.
Parasocial interaction (PSI) refers to the phenomenon where media consumers engage in a one-sided, imaginary interpersonal relationship with media personalities or performers. Coined by psychologists Donald Horton and Richard Wohl in 1956, it describes how audience members respond to real media characters, particularly on television (Adhikari, 2020). Viewers behave as if they are involved in a genuine interpersonal interaction, influenced by the conversational style, verbal and nonverbal cues, and audience-directed program formats used by media figures. This creates an illusion of intimacy between the audience and the media personality.
While initially rooted in psychology, research on parasocial interaction (PSI) during the 1970s and 1980s primarily adopted the uses and gratifications approach within media effects studies (Adhikari, 2020). This approach shifted the focus toward understanding what users do with the media. Studies found that users actively interpret media figures and relate them to their own lives, indicating their active role in the process (Adhikari, 2020).
On the other hand, parasocial relationships (PSR) extend beyond mere interaction to a more intense and sustained connection. PSR involves feelings of affection, loyalty, and attachment towards a media figure, akin to a real interpersonal relationship. This relationship may develop over time through repeated exposure to the media figure and may involve elements of trust and empathy (Tukachinsky, 2013).
An Example in Practice
Beyoncé fans, affectionately known as the “Beyhive,” are renowned for their unwavering support of Beyoncé and her work. This term, a clever fusion of Beyoncé’s name with the concept of a beehive, symbolizes the unity, hard work, and dedication among her fan base. The Beyhive is active on social media and frequently attends her concerts, demonstrating their passionate commitment to Beyoncé.
Members of the Beyhive may engage with Beyoncé in either a parasocial interaction or a parasocial relationship.
In a parasocial interaction, fans feel a temporary sense of connection with Beyoncé while engaging with her music, performances, or interviews. This interaction is often brief and momentary.
On the other hand, fans in a parasocial relationship with Beyoncé develop a deeper and more enduring connection. They closely follow Beyoncé’s life, celebrate her successes, empathize with her challenges, and exhibit loyalty and devotion over a longer period. These fans may regularly consume her content, actively participate in discussions about her on social media, and feel a genuine sense of attachment similar to real relationships.
Connections to Why We Study Communications
Connecting back to Chapter 1, these foundational concepts align with how we study communication.
Cultivation theory emphasizes the importance of critically analyzing media content, particularly in terms of stereotypes and representations of violence. It teaches us to pay attention to how media portrayals may shape our perceptions of reality over time. By understanding the cumulative effects of media exposure, we can better identify and address harmful stereotypes and representations in media content, contributing to our understanding of identity formation and interpersonal dynamics.
Understanding the media effects tradition, including cultivation theory and uses and gratifications theory, is essential for navigating today’s media-saturated world. These theories offer contrasting perspectives on how media messages are constructed, interpreted, and disseminated, shedding light on the role of representation in shaping societal narratives and norms. By examining media content through these theoretical lenses, we gain insights into the projection of individual and collective identities, aligning with the second reason for studying communication.
Cultivation theory and uses and gratifications theory emphasize audience agency and the importance of understanding diverse motivations for media consumption. By recognizing the active role of individuals in selecting and interpreting media content to fulfill their needs, these theories contribute to fostering civic engagement and democratic functioning. They highlight the dynamics of parasocial interactions and relationships, which are essential aspects of public discourse and societal participation.
Both cultivation theory and uses and gratifications theory underscore the complex interplay between media content, audience perceptions, and behaviour, aligning with the fourth reason for studying communication. These theories shed light on power dynamics inherent in discourse construction and the perpetuation of societal norms. By acknowledging the impact of heavy viewing, audience agency, and the diversity of motivations, researchers and practitioners can gain deeper insights into how media influences attitudes, behaviours, and societal norms, leading to more informed approaches to media analysis and communication strategies.
Limitations
Cultivation studies have focused on various aspects of television’s influence, including violence, gender-role stereotypes, health, family dynamics, and, more recently, online gaming and psychological health implications (Signorielli and Morgan, 2009). Replications of cultivation studies have been carried out in various countries such as Argentina, Australia, England, Germany, Hungary, Israel, the Netherlands, Russia, South Korea, Sweden, Taiwan, and elsewhere (Morgan, 2008).
However, like all theories, cultivation theory has important flaws. First, Gerbner’s definition of violence was problematic because it failed to account for the complexity of violent behaviour and its cultural context, particularly the power of verbal psychological abuse (Griffin et al., 2023). Second, the theory’s simplistic view of the audience neglects people’s diverse experiences and cultural backgrounds, which can significantly influence media effects. Additionally, cultivation may not be as feasible in today’s context with the multitude of channels and choices available, making it difficult to determine a consistent pattern of media influence (Morgan, 2008). Moreover, the causal chain proposed by cultivation theory is challenging to prove; it remains unclear whether television makes heavy viewers more fearful or if more fearful people tend to watch more media (Griffin et al., 2023). Despite these weaknesses, cultivation theory remains a widely studied area for scholars in both communication and psychology, indicating its enduring relevance in understanding media effects.
UGT has consistently been one of the most frequently published mass communication theoretical perspectives in communication journals over the past 50 years. The extensive research in this area has led to the development of taxonomies of media use motives, linking those motives to antecedent variables (e.g., social factors, personality), media use, and its consequences (effects). Additionally, there has been an extensive theoretical discussion and critique surrounding UGT. Many scholars argue that UGT represents a research perspective separate from the media effects tradition.
Critiques of UGT, as outlined by Griffin et al. (2023), address several key aspects of the theory. Firstly, some argue that the theory’s emphasis on description rather than explanation and prediction is a weakness (Griffin et al., 2023). Originally intended to offer specific predictions about media effects, the theory is seen by some as falling short in this regard. Secondly, the proposition that people use media to satisfy specific needs, categorized into simple easy to digest categories, has been criticized as being overly simplistic and far too optimistic (Griffin et al., 2023). This approach may not fully capture the complexity of media consumption motivations. Thirdly, scholars question the testability of the theory, particularly regarding whether individuals can accurately report the reasons for their media use, raising doubts about the reliability of the theory’s premises (Griffin et al., 2023). Finally, some argue that the theory lacks practical utility, regardless of whether users are seen as active participants or not. Its applicability to real-world situations and its ability to guide media practice are called into question (Griffin et al., 2023). These critiques suggest that while the uses and gratifications theory offers valuable insights into media consumption behaviour, it also has limitations that need to be addressed.
Summary
These foundational concepts provide the theoretical framework for understanding the complex interplay between media consumption and its effects on individuals and society.
Three major takeaways emerge:
- Understanding the media effects tradition is essential for navigating today’s media-saturated world. This tradition traces its roots to seminal works such as the hypodermic needle model, which suggested that media messages were powerful and directly influenced audiences. Over time, cultivation theory and uses and gratifications theory emerged, offering contrasting perspectives.
- Cultivation theory is the importance of critically analyzing media content, particularly in terms of stereotypes and representations of violence. Cultivation theory teaches us to pay attention to how media portrayals may shape our perceptions of reality over time. When researching media effects, it’s crucial to categorize violence accurately and consider its impact on individuals and society. By understanding the cumulative effects of media exposure, we can better identify and address harmful stereotypes and representations in media content.
- UGT emphasizes audience agency by recognizing diverse motivations for media consumption, such as passing time, seeking companionship, or gaining information, while also shedding light on the dynamics of parasocial interactions and relationships. This theory underscores the active role of individuals in selecting and interpreting media content to fulfill their needs, as well as their tendency to form one-sided relationships with media personalities.
In sum, both cultivation theory and uses and gratifications theory emphasize the significance of heavy media consumption, audience agency, and diverse motivations in studying media effects. Recognizing these factors improves media analysis by offering a clearer understanding of how media might influences specific attitudes and behaviours.
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