“Correction does much, but encouragement does more. Encouragement after censure is as the sun after a shower.” —Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

Today’s clinical learning environments can seem overwhelming. Learners, instructors and staff members all face extraordinary challenges in health care workplaces. Students can be recent high school graduates, adult learners supporting families, or newcomers to the country who are continuing to work on their language and literacy skills. Common concerns are high costs of tuition that result in unmanageable debt, and competition to achieve top marks. Many students travel distances to the clinical site and balance multiple commitments.

Similarly, instructors are also balancing work and family obligations that are separate from the clinical learning environment. As well, professional staff members at a clinical site, who are ultimately responsible for client safety and care, are frequently employed on a contract basis and may work at several different facilities. At times, professional staff members may view learners as an additional burden rather than an opportunity for professional development. Non-professional staff may find themselves assisting learners.

Creating a learning community among learners, teachers and staff cannot be left to chance. The complex social context of the current clinical learning environment makes intentional teaching approaches essential, approaches grounded in an understanding of how learning occurs for students. In this chapter we discuss the clinical learning environment, who the teachers are, and who the students are. We provide creative and easy-to-implement strategies that offer practical guidance to instructors for managing the everyday occurrences faced by clinical teachers in this unique ‘classroom.’

Students in health care education programs at universities complete practicums in a clinical learning environment in addition to attending academic classes. Clinical practicums are considered essential to professional competence in most health-based professions. For example, clinical practicums are viewed as essential to the curriculum by programs in medicine (Ruesseler & Obertacke, 2011), nursing (Courtney-Pratt, FitzGerald, Ford, Marsden & Marlow, 2011), pharmacy (Krueger, 2013), physical therapy (Buccieri, Pivko & Olzenak, 2013; McCallum, Mosher, Jacobson, Gallivan & Giuffre, 2013), occupational therapy (Rodger, Fitzgerald, Davila, Millar & Allison, 2011), dietetics (Dietitians of Canada, n.d.), radiation therapy (Leaver, 2012), paramedic training (McCall, Wray & Lord, 2009) and dental hygiene (Paulis, 2011). Internationally, clinical practicum placements for students in these and other health care disciplines are in markedly short supply. Available placements may be in programs offering care only to seriously ill clients, may be inundated with learners from the health disciplines, and may be experiencing budget cuts and staff shortages (Brown et al, 2011; Roger, Webb, Devitt, Gilbert & Wrightson, 2008).

The real world learning environment where students in the health professions complete their clinical practicums is an “interactive network of forces” (Dunn & Burnett, 1995) rich in opportunities for learners to transfer theory to practice. Setting out sequences of learning activities in unpredictable clinical environments can be more difficult to plan and structure than in traditional classroom environments. Both planned and unplanned experiences must be taken into account.

Planned Experiences

Curriculum. Following direction from a curriculum is a widely used planned learning experience in the clinical learning environment of any professional health care program. At the curricular level, clinical practicums are usually arranged before students are granted admission to their program of study. A curriculum is the range of courses and experiences a learner must successfully complete in order to graduate. Curricula are expected to include a philosophical approach, outcomes, design, courses and evaluation strategies. Clinical practicums can be structured as courses in the curriculum, either as part of a theoretical course or as a standalone course. Clinical practicums must be considered in relation to available health care facilities that are able to accommodate students.

Curricula in programs educating future practitioners in health fields are strongly affected by requirements of professional associations, regulatory agencies and approval boards. Curricula must address discipline-specific competencies. Throughout the curricular planning process, program planners from educational institutions must negotiate with administrators of service agencies to find suitable clinical practicum sites.

In the health disciplines, coordinating instruction extends well beyond the actual institutions of learning and into clinical agencies. Scheduling, faculty and budgets must all be addressed. The instructors and preceptors who teach students during their clinical practicums may have no other association with the university. Similarly, university faculty assigned to teach in a particular clinical area may have no current association with a particular agency.

Program Design. Program design configures the program of studies, including the courses selected, practicum experiences, relationships among courses, and the policies that communicate this information. Designs may include building with blocks of required study, building by spiralling back and adding to previous content at different points, and establishing opportunities for specific tasks such as an essential psychomotor skill. All faculty and those involved in educating students must seek a basic understanding of the ‘big picture’ curriculum that students follow.

Levelling is the process of linking program content, introduced at different times and in different courses, to the evaluated outcomes expected of graduates. Levelling requires planned opportunities for students to build on their previous knowledge and work incrementally towards achieving more complex outcomes. However, if a limited number of clinical placements are available, scheduling appropriate clinical opportunities for students at all levels is particularly challenging. Introductory level students may find themselves in practicums where they must care for acutely ill individuals.

Further, instructors, staff and students can find it difficult to link the learning outcomes and evaluation methods that flow from a program’s unique conceptual framework with the day-to-day work of a clinical agency. This may be another consequence of the limited associations between universities and clinical agencies. Although links between learning outcomes and day-to-day practice are made during planning by representatives of the universities and the agencies, the links may not always be clearly communicated to the staff actually working with learners.

Curricular structure, model, design, outcomes, evaluation methods and admission requirements of a program are planned with great care. They offer ‘big picture’ direction and open doors for learning in the clinical environment. Even so, unpredictable events are sure to emerge once clinical practicums are underway. In the following section, we discuss the heart of any clinical learning environment for many students, instructors and staff, the unplanned aspects of clinical learning.

Unplanned Experiences

The clinical learning environment is equivalent to a classroom for students during their practicums (Chan, 2004), yet few clinical agencies resemble traditional classrooms. In their clinical classrooms, learners hope to integrate into agency routines and feel a sense of belongingness (Levett-Jones, Lathlean, Higgins & McMillan, 2008). Learners want to feel welcome and accepted by staff and they want staff to help teach them how to practice confidently and competently (Courtney-Pratt, FitzGerald, Ford, Marsden & Marlow, 2011; Henderson, Cooke, Creedy & Walker, 2012). Students expect and require feedback on their performance and they must have opportunities for non-evaluated student–teacher discussion time (Melrose & Shapiro, 1999) and critical reflection (Duffy, 2009; Forneris & Peden-McAlpine, 2009; Mohide & Matthew-Maich, 2007). Learners need time to progress from one level of proficiency to another (Benner, 2001). Just as learners in classroom environments need support to develop competence in their chosen professions, learners in clinical practicums need a supportive clinical learning environment.

While supportive clinical classrooms are hoped for, clinical teachers must also be well prepared for unplanned experiences that raise barriers to learning. Research suggests that clinical learning environments may not be as supportive as learners would like. For example, Brown et al.’s (2011) work with undergraduate students from ten different health disciplines reveals significant differences between learners’ descriptions of their ideal learning environment and what they experience during their actual clinical practicums. Although participants in Brown et al.’s study express satisfaction with their learning experiences, they describe a mismatch between what they hoped for and what actually occurred. Similarly, recently graduated nurses indicate significant differences between the kinds of practicums they deem good preparation for practice and those they actually attended (Hickey, 2010).

Investigations into experiences of physical therapy students were unable to conclusively define a quality learning environment, in part because of the diverse instructional practices by different community agencies overseeing students’ practicums (McCallum et al., 2013). Over the last decade and in several different countries, student nurses rated their clinical experiences highly for their sense of achieving tasks but much lower for accommodating individual needs and views (Henderson, Cooke, Creedy & Walker, 2012). Although university students are encouraged to question existing practice and the status quo, students find that staff in their clinical placements are seldom open to innovation or challenges to routine practices (Henderson, Cooke, Creedy & Walker, 2012).

Staff shortages, and other issues with which clinical agencies struggle, can leave students feeling that they are not receiving the direction they need and that they are a burden to staff (Robinson, Andrews-Hall & Fassett, 2007). Students may feel alienation rather than the sense of belongingness they hope for (Levett-Jones, Higgins & McMillan, 2009). Students may express fear and discomfort in their relationships with staff (Cederbaum & Klusaritz, 2009, p. 423). Clinical learners have felt rejected, ignored, devalued and invisible (Curtis, Bowen & Reid, 2007). These findings suggest that in some instances health care students are not receiving the support they need.

By acknowledging that both unplanned and planned aspects of learning will occur in all clinical learning environments, educators can plan fitting responses. Clinical agencies will always have a professional duty to prioritize safe patient care over providing learners with clinical classrooms that align with their curriculum and individual needs. As a consequence, and in spite of careful planning by university and agency program representatives, students may perceive their learning environment as unsupportive.

However, international leaders in the health disciplines are calling on clinical agency staff to view clinical teaching as part of their own professional development. They ask clinical agency staff to aid the next generation of professionals by striving to provide quality clinical learning environments where students do feel supported (Courtney-Pratt, FitzGerald, Ford, Marsden & Marlow, 2011; Koontz, Mallory, Burns & Chapman, 2010). Programs are testing new models of instruction (Franklin, 2010). Individual clinical teachers are striving to implement innovative teaching approaches that can create mutually beneficial connections between learners and staff during clinical practicums. Recognizing when unplanned aspects of clinical learning environments distract from student learning is an important first step in triggering change. Evaluation surveys are one way to cast a spotlight on troublesome areas.

Self-Orientation to the Clinical Setting

Transitioning from Practitioner to Educator. As with any career change, the role transition from practitioner to educator can cause feelings of anxiety, isolation and uncertainty (Anderson, 2008; Dempsey, 2007; Little & Milliken, 2007; McDermid, Peters, Daly & Jackson, 2013; Penn, Wilson & Rosseter, 2008). Although specific tasks required of clinical teachers can be learned, the language, culture and practices of a university can be unfamiliar and difficult to grasp (Penn, Wilson & Rosseter, 2008). For many practitioners, discussing specific expectations for the faculty role both formally with program leaders and informally with other teachers can help.

Competencies expected of clinical teachers (Robinson, 2009) include

• being both a skilled practitioner and a skilled educator
• excellent interpersonal and professional communication skills
• implementing a range of assessment and evaluation methods
• leadership and administrative skills
• maintaining professional development and scholarship activities

Juggling the roles of practitioner and educator, and feeling as though they must be near perfect in both, can leave clinical teachers feeling threatened (Griscti, Jacono & Jacono, 2005). The professional development activities required to gain and retain competence in each role are different. Practitioners must continue to provide client care in new and different ways, and attend in-service workshops on new skills, products and equipment being used in their clinical agencies. Educators must integrate knowledge from the discipline of education, understand student-centred approaches to learning, and initiate a scholarly program of research and publication. Common to both roles are keeping up to date with research findings, attending conferences or other educational events, and undertaking self-directed study projects.

Moving beyond simply maintaining competence and towards excellence in the two roles takes time. At different points in their careers, clinical teachers may commit more time and effort to one role than the other. New clinical teachers who are experienced practitioners may initially focus on understanding the educator competency of assessing and evaluating learners.

Once novice clinical teachers gain expertise and confidence as university faculty members, they may collaborate with experienced researchers and authors to complete scholarly activities. At other times, clinical teachers may find it helpful to return to practice and strengthen their clinical expertise. Mentorship from more experienced faculty can help clinical teachers establish and work towards achieving realistic career goals (Billings & Kowalski, 2008).

Effective Clinical Teachers

The identity of clinical teachers as individuals, and as practitioners and educators, has a significant impact on their effectiveness in the clinical learning environment. The ways in which an instructor understands the process of learning will ultimately guide how they go about teaching (Hand, 2006). Rather than simply teaching as they were taught, clinical teachers are now actively seeking ways to strengthen the scholarship of educating learners in clinical learning environments (Buccieri, Pivko & Olzenak, 2013; Schmutz, Gardner-Lubbe & Archer, 2013; Sabog, Caranto & David, 2015).

If we view the clinical environment through the eyes of students, it is not unexpected that learners perceive effective teachers as individuals who demonstrate caring behaviours (Jahangiri, McAndrew, Muzaffar & Mucciolo, 2013), who are calm during stressful experiences (Smith, Swain & Penprase, 2011), who exercise patience (Cook, 2005; Parsh, 2010), and who demonstrate enthusiasm for their profession and for teaching (Gaberson & Oermann, 2010). Teachers who are approachable can help students feel less anxious and more confident (Chitsabesan, Corbett, Walker, Spencer & Barton, 2006; Sieh & Bell, 1994). Students appreciate teachers who make themselves available outside of clinical time, who take the time to answer questions without seeming annoyed, and who provide students with time to debrief and discuss issues (Berg & Lindseth, 2004). Students find it helpful when teachers are not controlling or overly cautious and allow students to learn the practice skills they need through actually doing them (Masunaga & Hitchcock, 2011). In short, students value respectful collegial relationships with their teachers (Kelly, 2007).

Effective and student-centred clinical teachers empower their students. Empowering teaching behaviours include enhancing students’ confidence, involving them in making decisions and setting goals, making learning meaningful, and helping them to become more autonomous professionals in their discipline (Babenko-Mould, Iwasiw, Andrusyszyn, Spence Laschinger & Weston, 2012). Empowering teachers care about, commit to and create with their students towards a shared vision that anything is possible (Chally, 1992).

Empowering strategies that foster a shared vision between clinical teachers and students include inviting students to identify the kinds of approaches that best support their learning style (Melrose, 2004). Effective teachers support students in identifying their personal strengths and working with teachers to build on these strengths (Cederbaum & Klusaritz, 2009). Empowering educators affirm student efforts, share positive messages and create supportive dynamics within the learning group (Chally, 1992). Note that empowering strategies also re-direct students when their work is unsatisfactory or off track.

In higher education settings, educators must assess and evaluate students’ work, thus affording educators power over whether students can continue in a course or program. The inherent tension in holding power over students while seeking to empower or share power is not easily resolved. Ultimately, clinical teachers must determine students’ grades, whether students are capable of practicing safely in their discipline, and whether students can progress in their chosen field.

Who Are The Students?

Like snowflakes, no two students are alike. Learners coming to clinical areas of health care may be young adults beginning their higher education at a local college or university, adult learners just launching their university learning, or may have already completed undergraduate or graduate degrees. Students may be living at home with family or far away in a new location. Some may have been awarded advanced credit. Other students may have been educated in different countries and may have cultural orientations that are unfamiliar to teachers, peers or agency staff. In addition to their studies, many university students are employed either part-time or full-time. Many students have extensive family responsibilities.

Despite this range of individual student diversity, teachers can expect that students in the health care professions will find the clinical learning environment stressful, at least initially. While all learners will experience and project the emotions they are feeling in unique ways, research suggests that commonalities exist. Students are likely to fear that they will harm clients, they desire to help people, they need to integrate theory and clinical practice, and they desire to master psychomotor skills (O’Connor, 2006). Mastering psychomotor skills can seem to dominate students’ views of what they feel is most important during clinical practicums. After graduating, however, learners report that having time and opportunities to practice their communication, time management and organizational skills is actually more important (Hartigan-Rogers, Cobbett, Amirault & Muise-Davis, 2007).

The high cost of tuition is a concern for most university students. Coupled with living costs that can include travel and additional accommodation at out-of-town clinical practicum sites, students face significant debt. Given the sacrifices that students in health care fields make to earn credentials in their chosen profession, understandably they usually expect to be awarded top marks and feel devastated when their efforts are graded as poor or failing.

Questions to Consider

What sacrifices have students in your group made to attend their educational program? What sacrifices have they made to attend the clinical placement? How can this information help you understand who your students are?

Knowing that most students feel anxious at the beginning of their clinical placement, have students work closely with agency staff until their confidence increases. Arrange practice time to help students achieve competency with psychomotor skills whenever possible. Some agencies have resources such as simulation equipment where learners can practice skills (discussed in more detail in chapter 5). The clinical educator in the agency often has access to resources for orienting new staff.

Intergenerational Diversity

Students, teachers, clinical agency staff and clients come from different backgrounds and have different perspectives and ways of interacting. These diverse perspectives become apparent in clinical practicums as students are required to communicate with individuals with whom they have little in common. One way of understanding these diverse perspectives is to consider learners and the health care team members they must interact with in relation to the generational groups they were born into.

Although the term diversity is often used in relation to race or ethnicity, diversification can occur when multiple generations work or study together (Fry, 2011; Johnson & Romanello, 2005; Weston, 2006). Each generation grows up with different life experiences and these experiences influence how members of a generational cohort view the world, how they communicate, and how they approach teaching and learning (Billings, 2004; Notarianni, Curry-Lourenco, Barham & Palmer, 2009).

A generation is a group of people or cohort who progress through time together, holding or sharing a common place in history. Each group shares social and political events that usually span 15 to 20 years. As a result, they view the world differently than generations born before and after. However, we must not make assumptions that all individuals of a particular age will demonstrate characteristics associated with their cohort. In some instances, though, linking an individual’s way of being in the world with characteristics expected from their generational group can be useful. Viewing learners and those they interact with through a generational lens can promote awareness of today’s students, their expectations, and how teachers can respond to their needs (Earle & Myrick, 2009).

Currently, four active generations are interacting in schools, workplaces, homes, families and communities (Gibson, 2009; Weston, 2006). These four generations are known as the Traditionalist or Veterans or Silent Generation, born between 1900 and 1945; Baby Boomers</em> or Sandwich Generation, born between 1946 and 1964; Generation X or Nexers, born between 1965 and 1980; and Millennials or Generation Y or Net Generation, born between 1981 and 2002. A fifth generation, Generation Z, learners born after 1995, is now entering universities.

Traditionalists. Students are most likely to meet Traditionalists as clients during clinical practicums. Having lived through World Wars and the Great Depression, those born during this period commonly experienced hardship. As a result they worked hard, were loyal and believed the sacrifices they made would be rewarded (Tilka Miller, 2007). The world of this generation was very different than today. News came from newspapers and radios; shopping was done locally. Members of this generation were willing to conform to their parents’ beliefs, rather than rebel, and they have been able to adapt to changes in the world (Johnson &amp; Romanello, 2005). Their early work environments had clearly defined hierarchies, with plainly outlined rules, roles, policies and procedures that employees were required to implement (Weston, 2006).

In health care environments, uniforms offered immediate explanations to this generation of who the health care providers were and what could be expected from them. In today’s fast-paced and technology-rich health care environments, Traditionalists may be unsure of students’ roles and may find their explanations difficult to understand.

Baby Boomers, now in their 50s, 60s and 70s, are presently the largest cohort working in health care (Fry, 2011). Students will meet members of this generational group primarily as the clinical leaders and practitioners in their practicums. Many <em>Boomers</em> grew up in a healthy, flourishing economy where hospitals and schools thrived. Positive social influences on this generation encouraged baby boomers to think as individuals from a young age, to express themselves creatively, and to speak out when not in agreement with others.

Many women in this generation were socialized into the primarily female professions of nursing or teaching, as these educational opportunities were widely available (Hill, 2004). Women of the <em>Boomer</em> generation were the first to work outside the home. This resulted in appreciably different home lives for the next generations.

In response to growing up in an era of prosperity, Boomers were willing to work long hours to pursue their goals, often in a relentless manner that may have negatively affected their personal lives (Stewart &amp; Torges, 2006). Boomers are now often sandwiched between caring for their aging parents and their adult children. They are also investing considerable time, effort and money into health maintenance and retirement (Johnson &amp; Romanello, 2005). Given their leadership roles and experience in health care, <em>Baby Boomers</em> may be seen as intimidating by students.

Generation Xers, now in their 30s and 40s, are a much smaller group and have been referred to as a bridge between the generations born before and after the introduction of the Internet (Wortsman &amp; Crupi, 2009). They grew up with computers, video games and microwaves, and are comfortable and skilled using new technologies. They expect instant access to information.

Members of this cohort were raised by two working parents or by single mothers and thus became known as the ‘latch key’ generation. They learned to manage on their own, became resourceful, and increasingly relied on friends (Walker, Martin, White &amp; Elliot, 2006; Weston, 2006). Generation Xers have been described as having little regard for corporate life, challenging authority and expecting to have their opinions considered (Earle &; Myrick, 2009; Walker, Martin, White &; Elliot, 2006; Weston, 2006).

In health care environments, Generation Xers entered the workforce during the turbulent 1990s period of downsizing and restructuring. Many were unable to find full-time or continuing employment (Fry, 2011). As a result, they do not view employment as security (Hill, 2004). Opportunities for promotion may seem eclipsed by the Baby Boomers who remain in the workforce. Students will encounter Generation Xers among their peers, teachers and clinical agency staff. Until relationships are forged, students may find that Generation Xers seem impatient and somewhat unwilling to offer in-depth explanations.

Millennials, who are in their teens through to early 30s, were raised by Boomers who were actively involved in their learning. They have high levels of self-confidence and share a close relationship with their parents and members of their parents’ generation (Hill, 2004). Millennials are the second largest generational cohort in the general population (Buruss &Popkess, 2012; Wortsman & Crupi, 2009). They are fully comfortable with technology and with living in a diverse world. <em>Millennials</em> are considered the most culturally diverse generation of all time (Earle & Myrick, 2009; Walker, Martin, White &Elliot, 2006).

This group of learners has a strong capacity to multitask, but their multitasking has the potential to erode their capacity to sustain focus and attention (Sherman, 2009). Their education has equipped Millennialswith abilities to work well collaboratively and on teams, extending respect to each member of a group (Wortsman & Crupi, 2009). This cohort is accustomed to and requires immediate feedback (Bednarz, Schim &Doorenbos, 2010) and positive reinforcement (McCurry & Martins, 2010).

Millennials will be present in student, teaching and staff groups. Students may find that individuals from this group are fun-loving, friendly and approachable, particularly if students are Millennials themselves. Some members of this generational cohort may have had limited exposure to failure or even to negative feedback.

Generation Zers are people born after 1995, who comprise one-quarter of the North American population (Kingston, 2014). They lived through the terrorist bombings of 9/11 and the 2008 recession. Known as screenagers or digital natives, members of this cohort have grown up with the internet, social media and smartphones, and are considered the most connected generation in history (McCrindle & Wolfinger, 2014; Sparks & Honey, n.d.). Raised in inclusive classrooms, Generation Zers are collaborative and over half will be university educated (Sparks & Honey, n.d.). They work quickly, can have short attention spans, communicate with symbols, and may not be precise or put effort into their writing (Sparks &Honey, n.d.).

Emotional Diversity

Another way to understand the diverse perspectives students bring to their clinical learning environment is to examine the diverse range of emotional issues many face. Just as members of the general population deal with learning disabilities, substance abuse, poor mental health or many other emotionally taxing problems, so do students enrolled in health care programs. Increased numbers of students with learning disabilities (Child &amp; Langford, 2011; McPheat, 2014: Meloy &; Gambescia, 2014; Ridley, 2011; Sanderson-Mann, Wharrad &McCandless, 2012), substance abuse problems (Monroe & Kenaga, 2010; Murphy-Parker, 2013), and poor mental health (Arieli, 2013; Megivern, Pellerito & Mowbray, 2003; Storrie, Ahern & Tuckett, 2012) are successfully completing their programs. Although help and accommodation for these students is more readily available, the stigma associated with their issues makes students reluctant to share the challenges they are working through.

Clinical teachers are not, and should not be, learning disability specialists or addiction and mental health counsellors. They must, however, know what program resources are available to students.

Developing Independence

Health care students may be generationally or emotionally diverse, but they share the common goal of needing to develop professional independence during their clinical practicums. Through a stepwise process of gradually decreasing direction and guidance from teachers and agency staff, learners must work towards practicing independently. University-educated professionals in health care fields are required to think and act on their own, with limited or no direction from professional colleagues. Crisis is an everyday occurrence. Once learners graduate, they will be expected to implement client care independently.

The processes and strategies that learners use to develop independence as practitioners are inherently difficult to understand. Seminal literature from the field of adult education indicates that a key element in developing independence in any educational activity is for students to take responsibility for their learning above and beyond responding to instructions (Boud, 1988; Knowles, 1975). Becoming independent requires students to choose suitable learning activities, reflect on their effectiveness, and initiate any needed changes (Holec, 1981; Little, 1991).

In chaotic clinical learning environments, where maintaining client safety is critically important, students can feel unsure about how they could or should go beyond what they have been instructed to do. An inherent tension lies between providing safe client care and initiating new or perhaps unfamiliar activities in clinical practicums. Ameliorating that tension is different from trying out new ideas in academic classroom settings. Students may not feel that they have developed the independence they need to function in a complex professional role until nearly a year after they graduate (Melrose & Wishart, 2013).

In sum, students in the health care professions are a diverse group. Some will be new to university and others will be experienced adult learners. Despite differences in their backgrounds, they can all be expected to be highly invested in their education and will have made sacrifices to complete clinical practicums. Most will feel anxious initially, particularly in their desire to provide safe care and to pass course requirements.

Students and teachers in clinical learning environments share the common goal of developing independent practitioners. Becoming independent is work in progress for students, teachers and clinicians alike. By grounding instruction in the premise that students will soon be on their own and responsible for their practice, the importance of supporting students towards initiating and managing their own learning becomes clear.

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