15 Assessment of Agricultural Education Student Learning through ePortfolios During Covid-19 Era: A case study from the University of Eswatini

Alfred F. Tsikati
University of Eswatini, Eswatini

ABSTRACT

This chapter explores the use of ePortfolios as an innovative method for assessing student learning in agricultural education during the COVID-19 era in Eswatini. A case study design was employed, drawing on a desk review of relevant literature, semi-structured interviews with lecturers and students, and analysis of student ePortfolios and module files. Findings reveal that ePortfolios functioned as a transformative tool, ensuring continuity of assessment during pandemic disruptions while fostering reflective learning, self-assessment, and personalized learning experiences. They enabled students to demonstrate competencies aligned with competency-based education (CBE) through artifacts such as project reports, reflective essays, and multimedia submissions, supporting both formative and summative assessment. Trustworthiness was enhanced through triangulation, structured interview protocols, and maintaining an audit trail, while ethical standards were upheld through informed consent, confidentiality, and respect for participants’ autonomy. Challenges including technological barriers, limited training, and resistance to change are discussed alongside strategies for overcoming them. The study positions ePortfolios as a resilient and competency-driven approach to assessment with enduring value beyond the pandemic.

Keywords: agricultural education, assessment strategies, competency-based education, COVID-19, ePortfolios, personalized learning, reflective learning

INTRODUCTION

The COVID-19 pandemic precipitated an unprecedented transformation in global education, compelling institutions to pivot swiftly to remote and hybrid learning environments (Aristovnik et al., 2023; UNESCO, 2022). In Eswatini, where agricultural education is pivotal for equipping students with the skills to address food security and sustainable development, this shift posed significant challenges to traditional assessment methods (World Bank, 2022). Physical distancing measures disrupted in-person evaluations, such as practical demonstrations and examinations, necessitating innovative, resilient digital solutions (Aristovnik et al., 2023). Among these, ePortfolios emerged as a transformative tool, enabling educators and students to maintain continuity in learning and assessment despite the constraints of the pandemic (Carter et al., 2023). ePortfolios were implemented over a two-year period during the COVID-19 pandemic, supporting teaching and assessment for students from Level 1 to Level 4 in the Agricultural Education programme at the University of Eswatini. This digital approach enabled continuity of learning and practical skill demonstration despite disruptions to traditional, in-person instruction.

This chapter, situated within the broader discourse of Digital Resilience of ePortfolios During and Beyond the COVID-19 Pandemic: Lessons for the Future, examines the implementation and contribution of ePortfolios in assessing agricultural education student learning at the University of Eswatini during the COVID-19 era. The chapter begins by presenting the approach in gathering information for writing it; contextualizing the educational landscape in Eswatini, and highlighting the shift towards competency-based education (CBE) and the disruptions caused by the pandemic. It further details the multifaceted role of ePortfolios as both a practical and pedagogical tool, emphasizing their capacity to bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application in agricultural education. Challenges to implementation, such as technological barriers and resistance to change, are critically analyzed, with strategies to overcome them. By presenting ePortfolios as a cornerstone of digital resilience, this chapter contributes to the broader narrative of leveraging technology to ensure educational continuity and foster lifelong learning in a post-pandemic world. The insights offered aim to guide educators, students, and institutions in harnessing the full potential of ePortfolios to navigate future challenges in the ever-evolving digital landscape.

CONTEXTUALISING THE EDUCATIONAL LANDSCAPE IN ESWATINI

In Eswatini, a landlocked nation in Southern Africa, agricultural education is a cornerstone of the national strategy to achieve food security, economic growth, and sustainable development (FAO, 2021). The University of Eswatini, through its Department of Agricultural Education and Extension, plays a pivotal role in training professionals equipped to address the country’s agricultural challenges, such as climate variability, soil degradation, and market access (Dlamini & Mbingo, 2018). The programme emphasizes practical skills, such as crop management, livestock production, and agribusiness, alongside theoretical knowledge, preparing students to contribute to rural development and national self-sufficiency. This focus aligns with Eswatini’s broader educational goals, which prioritize producing graduates capable of addressing real-world challenges in a resource-constrained environment (UNESCO, 2022).

Recently, Eswatini’s educational system has undergone a significant transformation, with a growing emphasis on competency-based education (CBE). Unlike traditional rote-learning models, CBE prioritizes the development of measurable skills and competencies that align with industry needs and societal demands (Malm, 2020). In agricultural education, this shift manifests in curricula designed to foster critical thinking, problem-solving, and hands-on application of knowledge (World Bank, 2022). For instance, students are tasked with designing sustainable farming systems, analyzing agricultural policies, or conducting experiments on soil fertility, ensuring they graduate with both technical expertise and adaptive capabilities. This pedagogical evolution reflects global trends in higher education and responds to the need for graduates who can navigate complex, dynamic agricultural landscapes. The adoption of CBE has necessitated innovative assessment strategies that capture students’ ability to apply knowledge in practical contexts, setting the stage for tools like ePortfolios to gain prominence.

The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 profoundly disrupted Eswatini’s educational landscape, particularly in agricultural education, where hands-on learning is integral. Lockdowns, social distancing measures, and restrictions on movement limited access to critical resources, such as laboratories, experimental farms, and fieldwork sites (UNESCO, 2020). Traditional assessment methods, including in-person practical demonstrations, group projects, and written examinations, became impractical or impossible. For example, students could no longer conduct on-site experiments or participate in community-based extension activities, both of which are central to agricultural training. The digital divide in Eswatini, characterized by limited internet connectivity and access to devices in rural areas, further exacerbated these challenges, leaving many students and educators struggling to adapt to remote learning environments (Motsa & Morojele, 2021).

The pandemic underscored the fragility of conventional educational frameworks and highlighted the need for resilient, technology-driven solutions (Aristovnik et al., 2020; UNESCO, 2021). As institutions scrambled to transition to online and hybrid models, the assessment of student learning became a critical concern. Traditional exams failed to capture the practical competencies emphasized in CBE, and educators faced the challenge of evaluating student progress remotely. However, this crisis also presented an opportunity to explore innovative tools like ePortfolios, which offered a flexible, digital means of documenting and assessing student learning. By aligning with the principles of digital resilience, ePortfolios emerged as a vital mechanism for sustaining educational continuity and supporting the competency-based goals of agricultural education in Eswatini during this unprecedented period.

METHODLOGY

This case study examined the use of ePortfolios in agricultural education at the University of Eswatini to gain an in-depth understanding of their role in teaching, learning, and assessment. A case study approach was appropriate as it allows detailed exploration of experiences, challenges, and strategies within a specific institutional context (Yin, 2018; Merriam, 2009; Carter et al., 2023).

A desk review of relevant literature was conducted using ERIC, Google Scholar, ResearchGate, UNESCO library, and the University’s institutional repository. These databases and websites were selected for their credibility and relevance to digital learning, competency-based education (CBE), and ePortfolio adoption, enabling the study to situate the Eswatini experience within regional and global perspectives.

To complement this, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 participants (six lecturers and six students) who had experience with ePortfolios during the COVID-19 period. Participants were purposively selected to capture diverse perspectives. Interviews, held between April and December 2024 through face-to-face and online platforms, explored the perceived importance of ePortfolios, challenges in use, and strategies supporting effective adoption.

The study also undertook document analysis of students’ ePortfolios (containing reflective essays, project reports, videos, and peer-feedback artifacts), relevant module files, and institutional policy documents on eLearning and CBE. These documents provided insights into the structure and assessment of ePortfolios. Credibility was enhanced through triangulation of data sources, including interview responses and document content; transferability was supported by providing rich, contextual descriptions; dependability was addressed by using a structured interview guide to ensure consistency in data collection; and confirmability was ensured by maintaining an audit trail of decisions and interpretations linked to the original content and responses.

Ethical considerations in this study include obtaining informed consent from all participants, ensuring they understand the purpose, procedures, and their right to withdraw at any time without penalty. Confidentiality and privacy were maintained by anonymizing data and securely storing responses, while participants’ autonomy was respected throughout the research process. The study also minimized the risk of harm by avoiding sensitive or intrusive questions and ensuring a supportive environment during interviews. Data were analyzed using content analysis, involving systematic coding of transcripts and documents to identify themes and patterns. This facilitated interpretation of how ePortfolios fostered reflective practice, personalized learning, and competency-based assessment in agricultural education.

IMPLEMENTATION OF EPORTFOLIOS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN ESWATINI

ePortfolios as an Assessment Tool

An ePortfolio is a digital repository that compiles a student’s work, reflections, and evidence of learning over time (Barrett, 2010). In agricultural education, ePortfolios may include project reports, videos of practical demonstrations, reflective essays, and peer feedback. Unlike traditional assessments, ePortfolios support both formative and summative evaluation, enabling educators to monitor progress and provide ongoing feedback while assessing final outcomes (Tosh et al., 2005). ePortfolios promote reflective learning by encouraging students to articulate their progress, challenges, and goals (Barrett, 2010). They facilitate personalized learning, allowing students to curate content reflecting their unique educational journeys (Ring & Ramirez, 2012). Aligned with CBE, ePortfolios enable students to demonstrate competencies like critical thinking, problem-solving, and technical skills, essential for agricultural professionals (Chen et al., 2008). During the COVID-19 era, ePortfolios provided a means to assess practical skills remotely, ensuring continuity of learning.

The integration of ePortfolios into agricultural education at the University of Eswatini during the COVID-19 era marked a significant shift towards innovative, technology-driven assessment practices. As traditional methods of evaluation, such as in-person practical demonstrations, became unfeasible due to pandemic-related restrictions, ePortfolios emerged as a versatile tool to sustain educational continuity (UNESCO, 2021). This section explores the multifaceted role of ePortfolios as both a practical and pedagogical instrument, emphasizing their capacity to bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application in agricultural education. Drawing on insights from a desk review and interviews with educators and students, the implementation process, the diverse applications of ePortfolios, and their transformative impact are detailed below.

Process of Integration

The adoption of ePortfolios at the University of Eswatini began with a strategic selection of accessible and user-friendly platforms, such as Moodle, to accommodate varying levels of technological proficiency among students and educators. Faculty members collaborated to adapt the agricultural education curriculum to incorporate assignments suitable for digital documentation, such as case studies, journals, and reflective essays. Training workshops were conducted to equip educators with the skills to guide students in creating and managing ePortfolios, while students received tutorials on uploading their assignments and writing reflections. To address the digital divide, particularly in rural areas, offline submission options, such as USB drives, were provided when internet access was limited. This inclusive approach ensured that ePortfolios could be implemented across diverse student populations, aligning with the principles of digital resilience (UNESCO, 2021).

Multifaceted Role of ePortfolios

ePortfolios served as both a practical and pedagogical tool, offering a dynamic platform for students to demonstrate their learning while fostering deeper engagement with agricultural concepts. Practically, ePortfolios functioned as digital repositories where students could compile a wide range of artifacts, including written reports, videos, photo essays, and data analyses as suggested by Barrett (2010). For instance, some of the practical activities were simulated using video from the internet. Pedagogically, they encouraged reflective practice, self-assessment, and the integration of theoretical knowledge with real-world applications, aligning with the competency-based goals of Eswatini’s agricultural education system.

Practical Applications

As a practical tool, ePortfolios enabled students to document and showcase their skills in a format that transcended the limitations of remote learning (Chen et al., 2021). For example, a student uploads a video presentation on livestock management techniques, a written analysis of agricultural policy impacts, or a photo essay documenting individual projects conducted during lockdown. These artifacts provided tangible evidence of technical proficiencies, such as designing instructional models. The flexibility of ePortfolios allowed students to present their work creatively, accommodating the diverse skill sets required in agricultural education. Educators reported that this format offered a more comprehensive view of student capabilities compared to traditional exams, as it captured both the process and products of learning (Tosh et al., 2005).

Pedagogical Impact

Pedagogically, ePortfolios fostered reflective learning and self-assessment, as well as key components of competency-based education. By requiring students to accompany each artifact with a reflection, ePortfolios encouraged them to articulate their learning process, identify challenges, and outline strategies for improvement (Abrami & Barrett, 2005). For instance, students reflecting on a virtual simulation of managing layers and rabbits were able to discuss how they applied the theoretical concepts to a practical scenario, highlighting lessons learned from such learning avenues. This reflective practice deepened students’ understanding of agricultural principles and cultivated critical thinking, aligning with the call for reflexive practice in ePortfolios. Moreover, ePortfolios supported personalized learning by allowing students to tailor their portfolios to their interests, such as agribusiness or vegetable production, thereby fostering ownership of their educational journeys (Yancey, 2009).

Bridging Theory and Practice

One of the most significant contributions of ePortfolios in agricultural education was their capacity to bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application, a critical need in a field where hands-on skills are paramount (Rowley & Munday, 2014). During the COVID-19 era, when access to farms and laboratories was restricted, ePortfolios provided a platform for students at the University of Eswatini to simulate real-world applications digitally. For example, students used virtual tools to design crop rotation plans or analyze market trends, documenting their processes in their portfolios. These activities required students to apply theoretical concepts, such as soil chemistry or agricultural economics, to practical scenarios, reinforcing their understanding and preparing them for professional roles. Interviews with educators revealed that ePortfolios enabled a more authentic assessment of competencies, as students could demonstrate how they translated knowledge into actionable solutions.

ePortfolios also facilitated formative and summative assessment practices, further bridging theory and practice. In formative assessments, educators provided ongoing feedback on draft artifacts, guiding students towards practical applications of theoretical concepts (Trevitt et al., 2012). For instance, an instructor might suggest incorporating local case studies into a student’s analysis of climate-smart agriculture, enhancing its relevance to Eswatini’s context. In summative assessments, ePortfolios served as culminating demonstrations of competencies, such as a final project showcasing a student’s ability to design a sustainable farming system. This dual role ensured that ePortfolios not only assessed theoretical understanding but also evaluated students’ ability to apply knowledge in real-world contexts, aligning with the call for innovative assessment strategies (Light et al., 2012).

Insights from Stakeholders

Interviews with educators and students underscored the transformative impact of ePortfolios. Educators valued the ability to assess student progress remotely, noting that reflective components provided deeper insights into students’ thought processes. One lecturer remarked, “ePortfolios showed us not just what students achieved, but how they connected theory to practice in their work”. Students, meanwhile, appreciated the flexibility and creativity afforded by ePortfolios. A third-year student commented, “My portfolio helped me see how my classroom learning applies to real farming challenges, and it gave me confidence in my skills.” These insights highlight ePortfolios’ role in fostering digital resilience by enabling meaningful learning experiences despite the disruptions of the pandemic.

Challenges For The Implementation Of ePortfolios In Agricultural Education In Eswatini

The adoption of ePortfolios in agricultural education at the University of Eswatini during the COVID-19 era represents a significant step toward innovative, technology-driven assessment practices. However, their implementation is fraught with challenges that stem from Eswatini’s socio-economic, technological, and educational context. These challenges, identified through a desk review and interviews with educators and students, include technological barriers, insufficient training and support, resistance to change, and other implementation issues. Addressing these hurdles is essential to realizing the full potential of ePortfolios as a tool for digital resilience in education.

Technological Barriers

Eswatini’s technological landscape presents significant obstacles to the effective implementation of ePortfolios. Internet penetration in the country was approximately 47% in 2020, with rural areas—where many agricultural education students reside—likely experiencing even lower access rates (Kepios, 2021). This limited connectivity severely restricts the ability of students and educators to create, upload, and manage ePortfolio content, particularly for multimedia artifacts like videos or photo essays that require substantial bandwidth. The high cost of internet services, coupled with a limited number of internet service providers, further exacerbates these challenges (International Telecommunication Union [ITU], 2022). Eswatini’s reliance on neighbouring countries for international fiber bandwidth contributes to elevated prices, making consistent access to ePortfolio platforms difficult.

Moreover, technical issues with ePortfolio platforms themselves can impede adoption. Problems such as complex navigation, user-unfriendly interfaces, and difficulties in uploading documents have been noted as barriers in educational settings (Ciesielkiewicz, 2015). In agricultural education, where students may already face logistical challenges due to remote learning environments, these technical difficulties can lead to frustration and disengagement. The digital divide in Eswatini, characterized by disparities in access to devices and reliable electricity, further complicates the seamless integration of ePortfolios into the curriculum.

Insufficient Training and Support

The successful implementation of ePortfolios requires both educators and students to be proficient in their use; yet insufficient training and support pose significant barriers in Eswatini. Many educators lack the technical expertise or confidence to integrate ePortfolios into their teaching practices, which can result in inconsistent or ineffective implementation. Without proper training, educators may struggle to guide students in creating meaningful portfolios or providing constructive feedback, undermining the pedagogical value of ePortfolios (Barrett, 2010).

Students, particularly those with limited prior exposure to digital tools, also require hands-on training to navigate ePortfolio platforms and understand their purpose. The absence of such training can lead to confusion and reduced engagement (Birks et al., 2016). Furthermore, ongoing technical support is critical to address issues such as platform glitches or connectivity problems, which can be particularly challenging in resource-constrained settings like Eswatini. The lack of institutional resources to provide comprehensive training programmes and technical assistance limits the scalability of ePortfolios in agricultural education (Motsa & Morojele, 2021).

Resistance to Change

Resistance to change is a pervasive challenge in Eswatini’s agricultural education system, where traditional assessment methods, such as in-person practical demonstrations and written examinations, are deeply entrenched. Both educators and students may be skeptical of ePortfolios, questioning their validity or reliability compared to conventional approaches. This resistance is often rooted in a lack of familiarity with digital tools and a preference for familiar, hands-on assessment methods that align with the practical nature of agricultural education (Dlamini & Mbingo, 2018).

Additionally, the reflective component of ePortfolios, which requires students to articulate their learning process and self-assess, may be unfamiliar in a system that has historically prioritized technical skills over metacognitive practices. A poor culture of reflective learning can hinder the effective use of ePortfolios, as students may struggle to produce meaningful reflections or understand their value (Mobarhan et al., 2015). Overcoming this resistance requires a cultural shift towards valuing digital and reflective assessment methods, which can be challenging in a resource-limited educational environment.

Other Implementation Challenges

Beyond the primary challenges, several additional hurdles complicate the implementation of ePortfolios in Eswatini. The time-consuming nature of creating and maintaining ePortfolios can be a significant burden for students and educators, particularly in agricultural education, where practical coursework already demands substantial time and effort. Students also lack awareness of the professionalism standards that ePortfolios are intended to demonstrate, resulting in submissions that fail to reflect their full capabilities or align with career-oriented goals (Harrington & Luo, 2016).

Incorrect implementation, such as failing to align ePortfolios with curriculum objectives or unclear guidelines, further diminishes their effectiveness. For example, without clear instructions on what types of work to include or how to structure reflections, students may produce portfolios that lack depth or coherence, as attested by Ciesielkiewicz (2015). These challenges highlight the need for careful planning, institutional support, and alignment with the competency-based goals of agricultural education to ensure that ePortfolios fulfill their potential as a transformative assessment tool.

PERCEIVED VALUE OF EPORTFOLIOS IN ASSESSING AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN ESWATINI DURING AND POST-COVID-19 ERA

The analysis highlights how ePortfolios supported competency-based education (CBE), fostered reflective learning, facilitated personalized education, and bridged practical and theoretical learning while also contributing to professional development and digital resilience in education.

Holistic Assessment of Student Progress

ePortfolios provided a comprehensive approach to assessing student learning, capturing both the process and outcomes of education (Buzzetto-More, 2010). Unlike traditional assessments, such as written exams or in-person practical demonstrations, ePortfolios allowed educators to evaluate a wide range of competencies, including technical skills, critical thinking, and reflective abilities. Educators at the University of Eswatini noted that ePortfolios offered a “holistic view” of student progress, enabling them to assess not only what students knew but also how they applied knowledge and reflected on their growth. For example, in courses like Methods of Teaching and Testing, students submitted videos of practical activities with reflective essays, allowing educators to evaluate practical skills and analytical thinking despite the absence of on-campus facilities during the pandemic. The students were required to teach either at home or at a school nearby or come to the campus to teach on their own and submit a video electronically. Some classes have mounted videos where they can do micro-peer teaching and then send the video for instructor assessment.

This holistic approach aligned with the principles of competency-based education, which emphasizes the demonstration of skills and competencies relevant to real-world agricultural challenges. ePortfolios enabled students to compile evidence of their abilities, such as project reports, data analyses, and communication skills, providing a richer assessment framework than traditional methods (UNESCO, 2015). Educators reported that this depth of insight improved their ability to identify individual strengths and areas for improvement, enhancing the quality of feedback provided to students.

Fostering Reflective Learning and Self-Assessment

One of the most significant contributions of ePortfolios was their ability to foster reflective learning and self-assessment. By requiring students to articulate their learning experiences, challenges, and goals, ePortfolios encouraged metacognitive practices that were generally underexplored during the teaching and learning process (Mohamed, 2017). Students noted that reflecting on their work helped them recognize their progress and set future objectives. A third-year student commented, “Building my ePortfolio made me think about what I learned and how I can improve—it helped me plan my career.”

Reflective components, such as essays on pandemic-related challenges or strategies for overcoming obstacles, promoted a culture of continuous development. This was particularly valuable during the COVID-19 era, as students faced disruptions that required adaptability and resilience. ePortfolios empowered students to take ownership of their educational journeys, a key aspect of personalized learning (Rapanta et al., 2020). By engaging in self-assessment, students identified areas for growth, such as time management or technical skills, which enhanced their learning outcomes and prepared them for lifelong learning.

Facilitating Personalized and Competency-Based Learning

ePortfolios supported personalized learning by allowing students to curate content that reflected their unique educational experiences and aspirations (Cambridge, 2010). In agricultural education, the students for the course on Instructional Communication and Technology are required to develop instructional materials to be used during teaching practice. Students showed diverse interest —such as livestock, agricultural engineering or crop production; and ePortfolios provided flexibility to showcase individualized competencies. For instance, some students with interest in engineering developed models such as tractors and center pivot irrigation systems, while others were interested in developing models such as bull brooders and poultry house equipment. This customization ensured that assessments were relevant to each student’s goals, aligning with CBE’s emphasis on tailored skill development.

The ability to demonstrate competencies through varied artifacts, such as multimedia submissions and written reflections, made ePortfolios particularly effective during the COVID-19 era. When physical access to farms and laboratories was restricted, students used ePortfolios to document alternative practical activities, such as home-based experiments or virtual simulations (Trust & Whalen, 2020). This adaptability ensured that competency-based learning objectives were met, maintaining the integrity of agricultural education despite unprecedented challenges.

Bridging Theoretical and Practical Learning

A critical impact of ePortfolios was their ability to bridge theoretical and practical learning in a remote learning environment (Alexiou & Paraskeva, 2010). Agricultural education in Eswatini traditionally emphasizes hands-on training, but the pandemic limited opportunities for fieldwork. ePortfolios addressed this gap by enabling students to document practical applications of theoretical knowledge. For example, in the Agricultural Extension course, students created ePortfolios showcasing virtual community outreach projects, including recorded presentations and stakeholder feedback, which demonstrated communication and leadership skills.

By integrating multimedia artifacts, such as videos and photo essays, ePortfolios allowed students to showcase practical skills in innovative ways (Batson, 2011). This was particularly valuable for maintaining the applied nature of agricultural education during the pandemic. Educators noted that ePortfolios ensured students could still engage with practical components, albeit remotely, preserving the balance between theory and practice that is central to the discipline.

Enhancing Collaboration and Peer Learning

ePortfolios facilitated collaboration and peer learning, contributing to a sense of community among students during the isolating conditions of the pandemic. Many courses incorporated peer assessment, where students reviewed each other’s ePortfolios and provided feedback (Laurikainen & Kunnari, 2018). For instance, in the Educational Research Method Course, students were grouped and assigned topics to make virtual presentations. This process not only enhanced critical thinking but also exposed students to diverse approaches to agricultural challenges. Educators reported that peer interactions via ePortfolios strengthened students’ communication skills and fostered a collaborative learning environment, which was particularly valuable in a virtual setting. The collaborative aspect of ePortfolios also extended to educator-student interactions. The digital format allowed for iterative feedback, where educators could comment on draft submissions, guiding students towards improvement. This ongoing dialogue enhanced the formative assessment process, ensuring that students received timely support to refine their work (Nguyen & Ikeda, 2015).

Professional Development and Career Readiness

ePortfolios served as professional showcases, contributing to students’ career readiness. In the Instructional Communication and Technology Course, by compiling a digital record of their achievements, students created portfolios that were used when going for teaching practice. This ePortfolios would be useful when the student teachers have graduated and employed in the education system (Joyes, 2010). Several students reported using their ePortfolios to secure opportunities, such as teaching practice, by demonstrating competencies like problem-solving. One student noted, “My ePortfolio showed my skills to an employer—it was like a digital Curriculum Vitae.

This professional dimension was particularly impactful in the post-COVID-19 era, as the agricultural sector increasingly valued digital literacy and adaptability. ePortfolios equipped students with a tool to articulate their skills in a technology-driven job market, enhancing their employability. The process of creating ePortfolios also developed transferable skills, such as digital proficiency and self-presentation, which are essential for modern agricultural professionals (Harrington & Luo, 2016).

Contribution to Digital Resilience in Education

The adoption of ePortfolios during the COVID-19 era contributed to digital resilience in Eswatini’s educational system. By providing a flexible, technology-driven assessment method, ePortfolios enabled the University of Eswatini to maintain educational continuity despite disruptions. Their versatility, supporting remote assessment, multimedia submissions, and reflective learning, made them a resilient tool for navigating the challenges of the pandemic (Zhang & Tur, 2024).

In the post-COVID-19 era, ePortfolios have continued to enhance digital resilience by preparing students and educators for technology-integrated education. The skills developed through ePortfolio creation, such as digital literacy and reflective practice, have equipped students to adapt to future technological advancements in agriculture. Moreover, the institutional experience of implementing ePortfolios has informed strategies for scaling technology use in education, such as improving internet infrastructure and training programmes, ensuring long-term resilience (Rasheed et al., 2020).

Sustained Impact Post-COVID-19

The impact of ePortfolios has extended beyond the immediate crisis of the COVID-19 pandemic (Farrell et al., 2022). In the post-COVID-19 era, the University of Eswatini has continued to integrate ePortfolios into agricultural education, recognizing their value in supporting CBE and reflective learning. The pandemic highlighted the need for assessment tools that are adaptable to various learning environments, and ePortfolios have proven effective in both remote and in-person settings. Their continued use has fostered a cultural shift towards valuing digital and reflective assessment methods, addressing initial resistance observed during implementation (Eynon & Gambino, 2017).

ePortfolios have also contributed to curriculum development, as educators use insights from ePortfolio assessments to refine course objectives and align them with industry needs. The emphasis on competencies like digital literacy and self-assessment has prepared students for a rapidly evolving agricultural sector, where technology and adaptability are increasingly critical. Furthermore, the professional showcases created through ePortfolios have strengthened connections between the university and agricultural employers, enhancing graduate employability (Harrington & Luo, 2016).

STRATEGIES FOR OVERCOMING CHALLENGES

To overcome the challenges encountered in the implementation of ePortfolios in Eswatini’s agricultural education post-COVID-19, issues such as technological barriers, insufficient training, resistance to change, time and resource constraints, and equity concerns needed to be addressed.

Improving Technological Infrastructure and Access

Several initiatives must be engaged to counteract the effect of limited internet access, high internet costs, platform usability issues, and unreliable electricity and device access. Enhancing internet infrastructure through partnerships with government and telecommunication providers can expand rural broadband and reduce connectivity costs, supported by subsidized data plans for students and educators. Adopting low-bandwidth and offline-compatible platforms, along with mobile-friendly interfaces, can accommodate users in low-connectivity areas and leverage widespread mobile device use. Providing support for device access and electricity, such as loaner device programmes and solar-powered charging stations, is critical for rural learners. Additionally, improving platform usability through intuitive design, templates, regular updates, and technical support can minimize user frustration and maximize engagement. Collectively, these strategies can strengthen technological infrastructure, bridge the digital divide, and promote equitable access to ePortfolio platforms across diverse learning environments (UNESCO, 2021b).

Providing Comprehensive Training and Support

The challenge of insufficient training for educators and students, which leads to inconsistent implementation and diminished pedagogical value, requires a comprehensive capacity-building approach. Educator training programmes should include workshops on ePortfolio design, rubric development, platform use, and reflective assessment, supported by peer mentoring and online resources. For students, hands-on training modules focusing on digital literacy, artifact creation, and reflective writing (introduced early in their academic journey) can build foundational skills. Continuous technical support through information technology helpdesks and virtual peer support forums ensures timely assistance and fosters user confidence. Additionally, institutional investment in professional development, including partnerships with global organizations, can sustain these efforts. Together, these strategies empower both educators and students to engage meaningfully with ePortfolios, promoting consistent and pedagogically rich implementation across academic programmes (Ring & Ramirez, 2012).

Fostering Stakeholder Engagement and Cultural Shift

The resistance and limited acceptance of ePortfolios require a strategic focus on stakeholder engagement, and institutional integration is essential. Awareness campaigns can highlight the value of ePortfolios in showcasing competencies and enhancing career readiness, using real-life success stories to build support among educators, students, and industry partners. Integrating ePortfolios into course objectives and aligning them with competency-based education and national standards can reinforce their academic relevance, while faculty workshops can address cultural barriers to reflective learning. Collaborating with industry stakeholders ensures that ePortfolios meet professional expectations and are recognized as valuable recruitment tools. Additionally, advocating for supportive national education policies can institutionalize ePortfolio use within accreditation systems. Collectively, these strategies promote a cultural shift that embraces digital and reflective assessments, embedding ePortfolios more firmly within Eswatini’s educational landscape (Yang & Hong, 2024).

Addressing Time and Resource Constraints

To address concerns about the time and resource demands of implementing ePortfolios, streamlined design and strategic integration are critical. Providing clear guidelines, templates, and standardized rubrics can simplify both student submissions and educator evaluations, reducing workload. Aligning ePortfolio tasks with existing assessments, such as using project reports as artifacts, prevents duplication and saves time. Securing funding for infrastructure—like cloud storage and platform licenses—along with adopting time-saving tools such as automated feedback systems, further eases implementation. A gradual rollout through pilot programmes allows for process refinement and efficient resource use (Viscarret et al., 2022). These strategies collectively make ePortfolios more manageable and scalable within Eswatini’s resource-limited educational context.

Promoting Equity and Inclusivity

Targeted support initiative for disadvantaged students is crucial. Expanding device loan programmes and offering offline access options, such as downloadable templates, can help bridge digital divides; particularly in rural areas, while subsidized internet access further enhances connectivity (Mwansa et al., 2025). Establishing community-based learning centers at Tinkhundla Centers, equipped with internet and devices, allows students to collaborate in supportive environments. There is a need for inclusive platform design featuring accessibility tools like screen readers and simplified interfaces to enhance usability for students with disabilities. Regular monitoring of participation across different student groups can help to identify and address disparities. These equity-focused measures collectively foster fair and inclusive engagement with ePortfolios across diverse learner populations (Lomellini et al., 2025).

ALIGNING ePORTFOLIOS WITH CURRICULUM AND PROFESSIONAL GOALS

To enhance the relevance and quality of ePortfolios, aligning them with both curriculum goals and professional competencies is essential. Mapping ePortfolio tasks to course learning outcomes and competency-based education ensures academic coherence, while integrating career-oriented elements—such as curriculum vitae, project showcases, and market analyses—prepares students for real-world applications. Professional development workshops, ideally informed by industry input, can guide students in creating impactful content. Quality assurance through peer and educator reviews, along with regular feedback loops, helps maintain high standards. Establishing ePortfolios as cumulative records throughout students’ academic journeys further strengthens their value as comprehensive showcases of skills and readiness for agricultural careers (Carter et al., 2023).

CONCLUSION

The implementation of ePortfolios in agricultural education at the University of Eswatini during the COVID-19 era offers valuable lessons for the future of education in resource-constrained settings. ePortfolios proved to be a powerful tool for sustaining educational continuity, enabling holistic assessment, promoting reflective learning, and bridging theoretical knowledge with practical application. Their alignment with competency-based education ensured that students could continue developing and demonstrating essential skills despite pandemic-related disruptions. However, the journey also revealed significant challenges [including technological barriers, insufficient training, cultural resistance, and equity concerns] that must be addressed to fully realize the potential of ePortfolios. The strategic responses outlined in this chapter [such as improving infrastructure, offering targeted training, fostering cultural shifts, promoting inclusivity, and aligning with curriculum and professional goals] highlight a roadmap for successful and sustainable ePortfolio integration. As Eswatini’s educational landscape continues to evolve, ePortfolios can serve as a cornerstone of digital resilience, equipping students with the competencies, adaptability, and self-reflective practices needed to thrive in both academic and professional agricultural contexts

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AUTHOR

Dr. Alfred F. Tsikati is a Senior Lecturer in Agricultural Education and Extension at the University of Eswatini. His expertise spans curriculum development, teacher preparation, and the integration of sustainable agriculture into education. He has authored over 50 journal articles, 10 book chapters, and presented at more than 40 conferences . A committed research leader, Dr. Tsikati supervised over 20 postgraduate students and spearheaded the development of Eswatini’s National Research Agenda for Agricultural Education. He is President of the Eswatini Educational Research Association (ESWERA) and Acting President of the Southern Africa Education Research Network (SAERN), roles through which he has organized major international conferences and advanced collaborative scholarship across the region. He also serves as editor of the Eswatini Teaching Practice Handbook and reviewer for international journals. Through his academic and leadership contributions, Dr. Tsikati continues to shape agricultural education policy, practice, and research in Eswatini and Southern Africa.
Email: fanaalfred@gmail.com