3.2 Language Basics

The relationship between language and meaning is not a straightforward one. One reason for this complicated relationship is the limitlessness of modern language systems like English (Crystal, 2006). Language is productive in the sense that there are an infinite number of utterances we can make by connecting existing words in new ways. In addition, there is no limit to a language’s vocabulary because new words are coined daily. Of course, words aren’t the only things we need to communicate, and although verbal and nonverbal communication are closely related in terms of how we make meaning, nonverbal communication is not productive and limitless. Although we can only make a few hundred physical signs, we have about a million words in the English language. So with all this possibility, how does communication generate meaning?

Generating meaning is a central part of the definition of communication. We arrive at meaning through the interaction between our nervous and sensory systems and some stimulus outside them. It is here, between what the communication models we discussed earlier labelled as encoding and decoding, that meaning is generated as sensory information is interpreted. The indirect and sometimes complicated relationship between language and meaning can lead to confusion, frustration, or even humour. We may even experience a little of all three, when we stop to think about how there are some 25 definitions available to tell us the meaning of the word “meaning”! (Crystal, 2006). Because language and symbols are the primary vehicle for our communication, it is important that we not take the components of our verbal communication for granted.

The following video will provide an overview of the topic of language and will introduce many of the concepts discussed in this chapter.

(Study Hall, 2022)

Language Is Symbolic

Our language system is primarily made up of symbols. A symbol is something that stands in for or represents something else. Symbols can be communicated verbally (speaking the word hello), in writing (putting the letters H-E-L-L-O together), or nonverbally (waving your hand back and forth). In any case, the symbols we use stand in for something else, like a physical object or an idea—they do not actually correspond to the thing being referenced in any direct way. Unlike hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt, where there was often a literal relationship between the written symbol and the object being referenced, the symbols used in modern languages look nothing like the object or idea to which they refer.

The symbols we use combine to form language systems or codes. Codes are culturally agreed on and ever-changing systems of symbols that help us organize, understand, and generate meaning (Leeds-Hurwitz, 1993). There are about 6,000 language codes used in the world, and about 40% of those (approximately 2,400) are only spoken and do not have a written version (Crystal, 2006). Remember that for most of human history, the spoken word and nonverbal communication were the primary means of communication. Even languages with a written component didn’t see widespread literacy, or the ability to read and write, until a little over 100 years ago.

The symbolic nature of our communication is a quality unique to humans. Since the words we use do not have to correspond directly to anything in our “reality,” we can communicate in abstractions. This property of language is called displacement and specifically refers to being able to talk about events that are removed in space or time from a speaker and a situation (Crystal, 2006). Animals communicate but do so in a much simpler way that is only a reaction to stimulus. Further, animal communication is very limited and lacks the productive quality of language that we discussed earlier.

The Triangle of Meaning

The triangle of meaning is a model of communication that indicates the relationship among a thought, a symbol, and a referent, and highlights the indirect relationship between the symbol and the referent (Richards & Ogden, 1923). The thought is the concept or idea a person references. The symbol is the word that represents the thought, and the referent is the object or idea to which the symbol refers. This model is useful for us as communicators because when we are aware of the indirect relationship between symbols and referents, we are aware of how common misunderstandings occur. Consider this example: Jasper and Priya have been thinking about getting a dog, so each of them is having a similar thought. They are each using the same symbol, the word dog, to communicate about their thought. Their referents, however, are different. Jasper is thinking about a small dog like a dachshund, and Priya is thinking about a larger dog such as a Labrador retriever. Since the word dog doesn’t refer to one specific object in our reality, it is possible for them to have the same thought and use the same symbol but end up in an awkward moment when they get to the animal shelter and fall in love with their respective referents only to find out that the other person didn’t have the same thing (the kind of dog) in mind.

Being aware of this indirect relationship between symbol and referent, we can try to compensate for it by getting clarification. Priya might ask Jasper, “What kind of dog do you have in mind?” This question would allow Jasper to describe his referent, which would allow for more shared understanding. If Jasper responds, “Well, I like short-haired dogs, and we need a dog that will work well in an apartment,” then there’s still quite a range of referents. Priya could ask questions for clarification, like “Sounds like you’re saying that a smaller dog might be better. Is that right?” Getting to a place of shared understanding can be difficult, even when we define our symbols and describe our referents.

Definitions

Definitions help us narrow the meaning of particular symbols, which also narrows a symbol’s possible referents. They also provide more words (symbols) for which we must determine a referent. If a concept is abstract and the words used to define it are also abstract, then a definition may be useless. Have you ever been caught in a verbal maze as you look up an unfamiliar word, only to find that the definition contains more unfamiliar words? Although this can be frustrating, definitions do serve a purpose.

Words have denotative and connotative meanings. A denotative meaning refers to definitions that are accepted by the language group as a whole; that is, the dictionary definition of a word. For example, the denotative meaning, or denotation, of the word hot is “to give off or possess heat.” Another denotation of hot is in reference to someone’s attractiveness. A more abstract word like change might be more difficult to understand because of the multiple denotations. Since both hot and change have multiple meanings, they are considered polysemic words. Equivocal language is similar to polysemic words in that they are words, expressions, or phrases that can have more than one accepted definition (Merriam-Webster, 2023)

Monosemic words have only one use in a language, which makes their denotation straightforward. Specialized academic or scientific words, like monosemic, are often monosemic, but there are fewer commonly used monosemic words, for example, handkerchief. As you might guess based on our discussion of the complexity of language so far, monosemic words are far outnumbered by polysemic words.

Connotation refers to definitions that are based on emotion- or experience-based associations people have with a word. To go back to our previous words, change can have positive or negative connotations depending on a person’s experiences. A person who just ended a long-term relationship may think of change as good or bad depending on what they thought about their former partner. Even monosemic words like handkerchief that only have one denotation can have multiple connotations. A handkerchief can conjure up thoughts of dainty British women or disgusting snot rags.

The Rules of Language

Grammar refers to the rules that govern how words are used to make phrases and sentences. Someone would likely know what you mean by the question “Where’s the remote control?” but “The control remote where’s?” is likely to be unintelligible or at least confusing (Crystal, 2006). Knowing the rules of grammar is important to be able to write and speak to be understood, but knowing these rules isn’t enough to make you an effective communicator. Even though teachers have long enforced the idea that there are right and wrong ways to write and say words, there really isn’t anything inherently right or wrong about the individual choices we make in our language use. Rather, it is our collective agreement that gives power to the rules that govern language.

There are also certain specific rules that fall within the realm of grammar (Ramoo, 2021). These rules were discussed in the video at the top of the page and include the following:

• Phonetic rules: Rules governing the way words or phrases are said; for example, how to pronounce words and where to place the emphasis (Ramoo, 2021).
• Syntactic rules: Rules that govern the way symbols can be arranged as opposed to the meanings of those symbols; for example, how words are organized in a sentence (Ramoo, 2021).
• Semantic rules: Rules that govern the meaning of language as opposed to its structure (Ramoo, 2021); for example, what a given word means within a society rather than where it is placed in a sentence.
• Pragmatic rules: Rules that help communicators understand how messages can be used and interpreted in a given context (Ramoo, 2021); for example, what a promise is and when to use it.

Looking back to our discussion of connotation, we can see how individuals play a role in how meaning and language are related, since when we communicate, we each bring our own emotional and experiential associations with a word; these associations are often more meaningful than a dictionary definition. In addition, we have quite a bit of room for creativity, play, and resistance with the symbols we use. Have you ever had a secret code with a friend that only the two of you knew? This can allow you to use a code word in a public place to get meaning across to the other person who is “in the know” without anyone else understanding the message. The fact that you can take a word, give it another meaning, have someone else agree on that meaning, and then use the word in your own fashion clearly shows that meaning is in people rather than in words.

The Functions of Language

What utterances make up our daily verbal communication? Some of our words convey meaning, some convey emotions, and some actually produce actions. Language also provides endless opportunities for fun because of its limitless, sometimes nonsensical, and always changing nature. In this section, we will learn about the different functions of language.

Language Is Expressive

Verbal communication helps us meet various needs through our ability to express ourselves. In terms of instrumental needs, we use verbal communication to ask questions that provide us with specific information. We also use verbal communication to describe things, people, and ideas. Verbal communication helps us inform, persuade, and entertain others. It is also through our verbal expressions that our personal relationships are formed. Verbal expressions help us communicate our observations, thoughts, feelings, and needs (McKay et al., 1995).

• Expressing observations: When we express observations, we report on the sensory information we are taking or have taken in. Eyewitness testimony is a good example of communicating observations. Witnesses are not supposed to make judgements or offer conclusions; they should only communicate factual knowledge as they experienced it. For example, a witness could say, “I saw a white Ford Explorer leaving my neighbour’s house at 10:30 p.m.” When you are trying to make sense of an experience, expressing observations in a descriptive rather than an evaluative way can lessen defensiveness, which facilitates competent communication.
• Expressing thoughts: When we express thoughts, we draw conclusions based on what we have experienced. In the perception process, this is similar to the interpretation step. We take various observations and evaluate and interpret them to assign them meaning (a conclusion). Whereas our observations are based on sensory information (what we saw, what we read, what we heard), thoughts are connected to our beliefs (what we think is true or false), our attitudes (what we like and dislike), and our values (what we think is right or wrong or good or bad). Jury members (Image 3.2) are expected to express thoughts based on reported observations to help reach a conclusion about someone’s guilt or innocence. A juror might express the following thought: “The neighbour who saw the car leaving the night of the crime seemed credible. And the defendant seemed to have a shady past—I think he’s trying to hide something.” Sometimes people intentionally or unintentionally express thoughts as if they were feelings.

• Expressing feelings: When we express feelings, we communicate our emotions. Expressing feelings is a difficult part of verbal communication because there are many social norms about how, why, when, where, and to whom we express our emotions. Norms for emotional expression also vary based on nationality and other cultural identities and even characteristics such as age and gender. In terms of age, young children are typically freer to express positive and negative emotions in public.
• Expressing needs: When we express needs, we are communicating in an instrumental way to help us get things done or to acquire something. Since we almost always know our needs better than others do, it’s important for us to be able to convey those needs to others. Expressing needs can help us get a project done at work or help us navigate the changes of a long-term romantic partnership. Not expressing needs can lead to feelings of abandonment, frustration, or resentment. For example, if one romantic partner expresses the thought “I think we’re moving too quickly in our relationship” but doesn’t also express a need, the other person in the relationship doesn’t have a guide for what to do in response to the expressed thought. Stating “I need to spend some time with my friends this weekend. Would you mind if I went out with them?” would likely make the expression more effective. Be cautious of letting evaluations or judgements sneak into your expressions of need. Saying “I need you to stop suffocating me!” really expresses a thought-feeling mixture more than a need.

Language Expresses Our Identities

Words and phrases express who we are and contribute to the impressions that others make of us. We’ve already learned about identity needs and identity management and how we all use verbal communication strategically to create a desired impression. For example, consider the label nerd. A person might identify as a nerd and be happy to apply the label to themselves, but would that person be affected differently if someone else called them a nerd?

The power of language to express our identities varies depending on the origin of the label (self-chosen or imposed by others) and the context. People are usually comfortable with the language they use to describe their own identities, but they may have issues with the labels others place on them. In terms of context, many people express their Irish identity on St. Patrick’s Day (Image 3.3), but they may not think much about it over the rest of the year. There are many examples of people who have taken a label that was imposed on them, one that may have negative connotations, and intentionally used it in ways that counter previous meanings.

Language Affects Our Credibility

One of the goals of this chapter is to help you be more competent with your verbal communication. People make assumptions about your credibility based on how you speak and what you say. We’ve learned that meaning is in people rather than words and that the rules that govern verbal communication, like the rules of grammar, are arbitrary, but these norms still mean something. You don’t have to be a perfect grammarian to be perceived as credible. In fact, if you followed the grammar rules for written communication to the letter, you would actually sound pretty strange, since our typical way of speaking isn’t as formal and structured as writing. But you still have to support your ideas and explain the conclusions you make in order to be seen as competent, and you have to use language clearly and be accountable for what you say in order to be seen as trustworthy. Using informal language and breaking social norms wouldn’t enhance your credibility during a professional job interview, but it might with your friends at a party. Politicians know that the way they speak affects their credibility, but they also know that using words that are too scientific or academic can lead people to perceive them as overly intellectual, which would hurt their credibility. People in leadership positions need to be able to use language to put people at ease, relate to others, and still appear confident and competent.

Language Is Performative

Some language is actually more like an action than a packet of information. Saying, “I promise,” “I guarantee,” or “I pledge” does more than convey meaning—it communicates intent. Such utterances are called commissives because they mean a speaker is committed to a certain course of action (Crystal, 2006). Of course, promises can be broken, and there can be consequences, but other verbal communication is granted official power that can guarantee action. The two simple words “I do” can mean that a person has agreed to an oath before taking the witness stand in court or assuming a political position. In a wedding ceremony, it can also mean that two people are now bound in a relationship recognized by the government and/or a religious community (Image 3.4). These two words, if said in the right context and in front of the right person, such as a judge or a religious official, bring with them obligations that cannot be undone without additional steps and potential negative repercussions. In that sense, language is much more than mere words.

Performative language can also be a means of control, especially in legal contexts. In some cases, the language that makes our laws is intentionally vague. In courts all over the nation, the written language intersects with spoken language as lawyers advocate for particular interpretations of written laws. The utterances of judges and juries set precedents for reasonable interpretations that will then help decide future cases. Imagine how powerful, to a defendant awaiting their verdict, the words “We the jury find the defendant …” seem. The sentences handed down by judges following a verdict are also performative because those words impose fines and penalties such as jail time. Some language is deemed so powerful that it is regulated. Hate speech, slander, libel, and defamation are considered powerful enough to actually do damage to a person and have therefore been criminalized.

Language Is Dynamic

As we have already learned, language is essentially limitless. We may create a one-of-a-kind sentence combining words in new ways and never know it. Aside from the endless structural possibilities, the meaning of words changes over time, and new words are created daily.

• Neologisms are newly coined or newly used words. Newly coined words are those that were just brought into linguistic existence. Newly used words make their way into languages in several ways, including borrowing and changing structure. Taking is actually a more fitting descriptor than borrowing, since we take words but don’t really give them back. In any case, borrowing words is the primary means through which languages expand. English is a good case in point because most of its vocabulary is borrowed from other languages and doesn’t reflect the language’s Germanic origins—English has been called the “vacuum cleaner of languages” (Crystal, 2006). Its borrowed words include chic from French, karaoke from Japanese, and caravan from Arabic, among many others. Other languages also borrow from English—weekend is a popular English word now used in a number of other languages.
• Slang is a great example of the dynamic nature of language. Slang refers to new or adapted words that are specific to a group, context, and/or time period. It is regarded as less formal and more representative of people’s creative play with language. Research has shown that only about 10% of the slang terms that emerge over a 15-year period survive. Many more take their place, though, as new slang words are created using inversion, reduction, or old-fashioned creativity (Allan & Burridge, 2006). Inversion is a form of word play that produces slang words like sick, wicked, and bad that actually refer to the opposite of their typical, more formal meaning. Reduction creates slang words such as pic, sec, and later from picture, second, and see you later. New slang words often represent what is edgy, current, or simply relevant to the daily lives of a group of people.

Language Is Relational

We use verbal communication to initiate, maintain, and terminate our interpersonal relationships. The first few exchanges with a potential romantic partner or friend help us size the other person up and decide whether or not we want to pursue a relationship or not. We then use verbal communication to remind others how we feel about them and to check in with them, engaging in relationship maintenance through language use. When negative feelings arrive and persist, or for many other reasons, we often use verbal communication to end a relationship.

Interpersonally, verbal communication is key to bringing people together and maintaining relationships. Whether intentionally or unintentionally, our use of words like I, you, we, our, and us affects our relationships. “We” language includes the words we, our, and us and can be used to promote a feeling of inclusiveness. “I” language can be useful when expressing thoughts, needs, and feelings because it leads us to “own” our expressions and avoid the tendency to mistakenly attribute the cause of our thoughts, needs, and feelings to others. Communicating emotions using “I” language may also facilitate emotion sharing by not making our conversational partner feel at fault or defensive. For example, instead of saying, “You’re making me mad!” you could say, “I’m starting to feel really angry because we can’t agree on this.” Conversely, “you” language can lead people to become defensive and feel attacked, which can be divisive and result in feelings of interpersonal separation. “But” statements are also to be avoided because they negate everything that was said before, even if it was positive or intentional (Schafler, 2018). For example, “I’m sorry but …” ends up saying that you possibly are not really sorry, and this may result in others becoming defensive. Replacing “but” with “and” helps a person to clearly communicate that two ideas exist, which invites further communication as opposed to negating, which draws a line in the sand for defensiveness; for example, saying, “I’m sorry, and I don’t see things the same way, can we talk about this?'”

Moving from the interpersonal to the sociocultural level, we can see that speaking the same language can bring people together. When a person is surrounded by people who do not speak the same language, it can be very comforting to run into another person who does. Even if the two people are strangers, the ease of linguistic compatibility is comforting and can quickly facilitate a social bond. Language helps shape our social reality, so a common language leads to some similar perspectives. Of course, there are individual differences within a language community, but there is power in shared language to unite people.

Language Can Separate Us

Whether it’s criticism, teasing, or language differences, verbal communication can also lead to feelings of separation. Language differences alone do not present insurmountable barriers. We can learn other languages with time and effort, there are other people who can translate and serve as bridges across languages, and we can also communicate nonverbally in the absence of linguistic compatibility. People who speak the same language can intentionally use language to separate. The words us and them can be a powerful start to separation.

At the interpersonal level, unsupportive messages can make others respond defensively, which can lead to feelings of separation and the actual separation or dissolution of a relationship. It is impossible to be supportive in our communication all the time, but consistently unsupportive messages can hurt others’ self-esteem, escalate conflict, and lead to defensiveness. People who regularly use unsupportive messages may create a toxic win-lose dynamic in a relationship.

Common Types of Unsupportive Messages

• Global labels: “You’re a liar.” Labelling someone irresponsible, untrustworthy, selfish, or lazy calls their whole identity as a person into question. Such sweeping judgements and generalizations are sure to only escalate a negative situation.
• Sarcasm: “No, you didn’t miss anything in class on Wednesday. We just sat here and looked at each other.” Even though sarcasm is often disguised as humour, it usually represents passive-aggressive behaviour and indirectly communicates negative feelings.
• Dragging up the past: “I should have known not to trust you when you never paid me back that $100 I let you borrow.” Bringing up negative past experiences is a tactic used by people when they don’t want to discuss a current situation. Sometimes people have built up negative feelings that are suddenly released by a seemingly small thing in the moment.
• Negative comparisons: “Jade graduated from college without any credit card debt. I guess you’re just not as responsible as she is.” Holding a person up to the supposed standards or characteristics of another person can lead to feelings of inferiority and resentment. Parents and teachers may unfairly compare children to their siblings.
• Judgmental “you” messages: “You’re never going to be able to hold down a job.” Accusatory messages are usually generalized overstatements about a person that go beyond labelling but still do not describe specific behaviour in a productive way.
• Threats: “If you don’t stop texting back and forth, both of you are going to regret it.” Threatening someone with violence or some other negative consequence usually signals the end of productive communication. Aside from the potential legal consequences, threats usually overcompensate for a person’s insecurity.

Now that we have had a chance to look at some of the concepts, rules, meaning, and functions of language, in the next section, we will look at ways we can competently use language to communicate with others.

References

Allan, K., & Burridge, K. (2006). Forbidden words: Taboo and the censoring of language. Cambridge University Press.

Crystal, D. (2006). How language works: How babies babble, words change meaning, and languages live or die. The Overlook Press.

Hayakawa, S. I., & Hayakawa, A. R. (1990). Language in thought and action (5th ed.). Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Leeds-Hurwitz, W. (1993). Semiotics and communication: Signs, codes, cultures. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates/Taylor & Francis.

McCornack, S. (2007). Reflect and relate: An introduction to interpersonal communication. Bedford/St Martin’s.

McKay, M., Davis, M., & Fanning, P. (1995). Messages: Communication skills book (2nd ed.). New Harbinger Publications.

Merriam-Webster. (2023). Equivocal. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/equivocal#:~:text=Equivocal%E2%80%94which%20can%20be%20traced,precepts%20with%20equivocal%20phrasing%22)

Ogden, C. K., & Richards, I. A. (1923). The meaning of meaning. Routledge/Kegan Paul.

Ramoo, D. (2021). Psychology of language. BCcampus. https://opentextbc.ca/psyclanguage/, licensed under CC BY 4.0

Schafler, K. (2018, March 23). Using an all-too-common word in conversation can be destructive to your relationships — here’s what to say instead. Insider. https://www.businessinsider.com/worst-word-you-can-use-during-an-argument-with-someone-you-love-but-2018-3

Study Hall. (2022, October 12). How is language built? | Intro to human communication | Study Hall [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zmwgmt7wcv8

Image Credits (images are listed in order of appearance)

Hello image by Awstreub, CC BY-SA 4.0

Boone County Courthouse jury box by Brandonrush, CC0 1.0

St Patricks Day Parade (26896181378) by Maryland GovPics, CC BY 2.0

Villa-del-Balbianello-wedding 01 by Damionmower, CC BY-SA 4.0